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SCHOOL  .  HOME  -  COMMUNITY  SERIES 


FFffl     FOOD     ffl?l 


WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


11^ 


BY 

EDITH  GREER 


GINN  AND  COMPANY 

BOSTON  •  NEW  YORK  •  CHICAGO  •  LONDON 


COPYRIGHT,  1915,  BY  EDITH  GREER 
ALL    RIGHTS   RESERVED 


GINN  AND  COMPANY  •  PRO- 
PRIETORS •  BOSTON  •  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 


FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES  PURPOSE  OF  BOOK 

Production  of  food  and  food-preparation  are  among  the  oldest 
occupations  of  human  life.  They  are  still  most  essential  to  human 
well-being.  Cultivation  and  cooking  of  food  have  come  down  the 
ages  into  complex  activities  highly  specialized  and  associated  with 
concentrated  commercial  interests.  Together  these  are  coming  under 
the  direction  of  science  and  the  regulation  of  the  community. 

Occupation  with  the  needs  created  by  living,  is  a  common  human 
pursuit,  practiced  with  or  without  purpose  or  plan.  Any  continua- 
tion of  life  necessitates  work.  Advancing  life  requires  intelligent 
work  that  includes  the  study  of  how  to  live  constructively.  That 
this  may  be,  the  study  of  food  in  school  is  now  generally  advised 
by  all  prepared  to  see  its  bearing  upon  both  wholesome  life  and 
efficient  work,  and  also  how  the  understanding  cooperation  of 
humanity  is  needed  in  supplying  and  selecting  what  is  of  use  for 
growth  and  health. 

Civilization,  in  whatever  stage  it  is  at  the  time,  is  the  environ- 
ment into  which  each  generation  comes.  But  what  the  environment 
becomes  in  its  supplies  and  practices  is  determined  by  humanity 
as  it  lives.  Experience  served  as  a  guide  to  action  until  Science 
was  born.  Together  Experience  and  Science  inform  humanity 
and  can  be  forming  to  its  environment,  upon  which  its  physical 
nurture  depends. 

The  learner  responds  to  the  active  aspects  of  learning  with  under- 
standing. Personal  experience  in  activity  carries  one  not  only  into 
seeing  facts  but  also  into  knowing  their  meaning.  Cookery  in  its 
actual  practice  in  choosing,  combining,  preparing  food  makes  food- 
knowledge  center  in  nourishment,  in  which  its  real  significance  lies. 

But  where  cookery  has  not  become  a  school  course,  while  that 
subject  is  being  ushered  in  —  speed  the  day  —  or  is  being  pursued 


769792 


only  in  its  mechanical  aspects,  a  study  of  food  —  diet  —  nutrition 
is  needed.  Such  a  school  need  for  girls  and  also  boys  is  met  in 
this  presentation  of  Food —  What  it  is  and  does. 

No  community  is  longer  wholly  indifferent  to  youth's  entering 
upon  its  mature  functions  and  responsibilities,  devoid  of  knowl- 
edge of  what  sustains  and  makes  possible  intelligent  maintenance 
of  abiding  health  and  enduring  energy.  Even  habits  that  secure 
healthful  functioning  of  the  body  need  the  supplement  of  an  in- 
telligent, interested  attitude  toward  information  that  has  forming 

power  for  race-2:rowth. 

EDITH   GREER 

New  York 


w 


CONTENTS  IN  GENERAL 


Plant  Life  and  Plant  Foods     ....    pp.       1-79 

For  Specific  Subjects  see  p.  vii 

Animal  Life  and  Animal  Foods  ...     ''       81-126 
For  Specific  Subjects  see  p.  81 

Living — Industry  —  Commerce    .    .     ''     127-158 
For  Specific  Subjects  see  p.  130 

Food-Science  —  Human  Nutrition  .    .     ''     159-213 
For  Specific  Subjects  see  p.  160 

Hygiene  —  Health  —  Sanitation     .    .     ''     21 4-224 
For  Index  see  p.  225 


A 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

Food  Maps  and  Statistics 
Food  Charts  and  Tables 
Diagrams  and  Interpretations 

Meat  Cuts  and  Carving 
Table- Laying  and  Equipment 

New  England  Hearth 
Norwegian  Bread-making 
Italian  Kitchen  and  Well-head 

Index  records  Specific  Cuts 
under  Illustrations 


Cocoa 


Date 


Papaiv 


Banana 


Plant  life  and  Plant  foods;  Animal  life  and  Animal  foods;  Food-Science 
Living  —  Industry  —  Commerce ;   Home  and  Community  Occupations 


Certain  needs  are  common  to  all  physical  life.   It  always 

requires  azr^  water,  and  food  of  some  kind.    In  general, 

however,  the  specific  foods  desirable  for  different  persons 

are  as  different  as  are  the  persons  and  their  lives 


Light  on  Life  lightens  labor  in  living 
through  Strength,  Progress,  Growth 


VI 


PLANT  LIFE  AND  PLANT  FOODS 


Markets  —  Human  Foods  —  Human  Nutrition  1-2 
Vegetables  —  Starchy  —  Leguminous  —  Green  3-5 
Comparison  of  Vegetables  —  Combination  6-^ 
Parts  of  Vegetables  —  Maturity  —  Preservation  8-1 1 
Cooking  —  Caring  for  —  Selecting  of  Vegetables  1 2-4 
Plant-Production  —  Plant  Foods  —  Grains  15-7 
Cereal  Maps  and  Data  on  Production  18-9 
Cereals  —  Composition,  Preparation  —  Grain  Foods  20-3 
Wheat  —  Milling  —  Flours  —  Breads  —  Bread- 
Making  24-8 
Rising  Agents  —  Yeast-Activity  —  Fermentation  — 

Leavens  29-3 1 
Baking-Powder  —  Residues  —  Home-made  Leavens  32-4 
Flours  —  Home-used  —  Flour-Mixtures  —  Bread- 
Substitutes  35-7 
Fruits  —  Cultivation  —  Preservation  —  Preparation  — 

Use  in  Diet  38-45 

Nuts  —  Production — Use  as  Food  —  Data  and  Maps  46-9 

Oils  —  Acids  —  Spices  —  Flavorings  —  Condiments  50-5 
Beverages  —  Tea  —  Coffee  —  Cocoa  —  Chocolate  — 

Sugar  56-64 
Vegetation  —  Value  —  Life-Needs  —  Plant-Construc- 
tion and  Activity  65-8 
Bacterial  Life  —  Dangers  —  Significance  —  Develop- 
ment 69-70 

CYCLE  OF  NATURE 

Living    Organisms  —  Products    of    Living  —  Life 

Functions  71 -3 

Food  Cycle  —  Vegetable  Cells  —  Starch  Grains  74-6 

Some  World  Crops  in  191 2-19 13  jj 

Crop-Distribution  —  Maps  and  Diagrams  78-9 


MARKETS 


FOOD—  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 

HUMAN  FOODS 


Food  Markets  of  the  world  show  the  foods  of  all  climates, 
seasons,  lands.  Grain  foods,  vegetables,  fruits,  meats,  dairy 
products  are  all  seen  and  are  all  different.  Yet  they  all  con- 
tain most  of  the  food  substances  needed  to  nourish  human- 
kind, but  in  such  different  proportions  and  combinations  as  to 
make  great  variety  in  Human  Foods. 

City  markets  everywhere  are  much  alike  in  what  they  have, 
and  they  have  most  foods  known  to  humanity.  In  town, 
village,  hamlet  is  found  only  what  is  produced  in  the  locality. 
It  is  these  rather  than  the  cosmopolitan  markets  that  show 
the  characteristic  foods  of  the  land.  It  is  upon  such  foods 
that  the  majority  of  the  inhabitants  depend  for  nourishment, 
that  is,  must  live,  grow,  and  do  their  work. 

Rural  life  may  limit  further  what  comes  from  elsewhere,  but 
it  usually  can  be  made  rarely  rich  in  what  may  be  freshly  raised 
at  hand.  With  its  abundance  of  fresh  air  and  often  fresh  spring 
water  the  country  provides  for  health-giving  physical  living 
that  cannot  be  so  fully  insured  under  any  other  conditions. 

Human  foods  support  the  life  of  humankind.  They  differ 
from  the  foods  needed  by  both  animals  and  plants  but  include 
both  plants  and  animals  themselves.  Whatever  humanity  can 
digest,  that  is,  can  make  over  injto>  bpdytissue  or  otherwise 
use  to  aid  in  its  living  and  workmg^  l-s'a  Ruman  tood.  But 
all  human  foods  are  not  equa'dy  desirable'.  \C'rl)^  i:hos;e  foods 
are  valuable  which  do  for  the  body  what  food  fieeds't(y*'ck)  to 
give  the  body  health,  energy,  strength,  endurance,  and  which 
do  not  do  anything  less  helpful.  Which  foods  these  are  varies 
somewhat  with  life-conditions. 

PLANT  LIFE  AND  PLANT  FOODS  1 


VEGETABLE  FOOD 


HUMAN  NUTRITION 


Of  what  plants  and  animals  make  human  foods  and  how 
they  do  this  is  considered  later.  The  result  of  their  food- 
manufacture  is  that  human  food  is  both  vegetable  and  animal. 
Both  serve  in  some  respects  the  same  purpose  in  the  body, 
while  in  others  their  use  is  different.  Either  vegetable  or 
animal  food  would  sustain  life,  but  both  together  do  so  much 
better  than  either  could.  Vegetable  food  would  do  better 
alone  than  animal.  Not  a  few  persons  do  live  upon  it  entirely. 
There  are,  however,  reasons  that  make  food-scientists  doubt 
the  advisability  of  an  exclusively  vegetable  diet.  But  Science 
(^now  advises  that  somewhat  more  than  one  half  (at  least  .56) 
of  the  food  of  humankind  be  vegetable. 

Plant  food  supplies  most  of  the  energy  and  endurance  of 
V  the  body  in  starch,  sugar,  and  vegetable-oil  foods  ;  also  much  of 
the  body-heat,  the  food-bulk  required  for  digestive  activity,  the 
salts  needed  for  body-regulation,  and  the  water  used  in  living 
processes  and  food-utilizatior^  Some  vegetable  food  can  also 
build  up  body-tissue  as  it  needs  repair  or  material  for  growth. 

Vegetables,  fruits,  and  seeds  are  of  plant  production.  What 
these  are  like  and  where  they  come  from,  how  they  come,  are 
prepared  and  used,  are  the  food-facts  that  show  what  the  food- 
supply  brings  to  humankind  as  its  vegetable  food. 

Looking  back  of  the  food  as  served  is  seen  the  life  of  the 
plant  itself,  also  the  work  of  those  that  bring  it  to  humankind  as 
a  human  food  that  wiHijouri'sh  when  eaten. .  Seeking  such  facts 
and  seeijig  them  as  factors  xrbntrolling  the  sustenance  of  human- 
ity i3.  the  purpo's^ '(^f  stucjyin^  Food  —  What  it  is  and  does. 

WkatVegetaSle'food  is  used  in  human 'living  is  learned 
from  markets  that  show  what  foods  are  available  and  from 
science  that  finds  what  foods  can  be  produced  and  supplied, 
also  what  kinds  of  food  are  needed. 

2  FOOD—  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


COMPOSITION 


(STARCHY)  VEGETABLES 


Plant  food  known  generally  as  vegetables,  fruits,  grains,  nuts, 
consists  of  various  parts  of  the  plant.  The  root,  stem,  stalk, 
leaves,  flower,  fruit,  seeds  all  serve  as  human  foods,  but  not  all 
these  parts  of  the  same  plant.  Each  vegetable  food  is  the  edi- 
ble part  of  the  plant  from  which  it  comes.  Beets  are  roots  ;  cel- 
ery is  stem ;  .cabbage,  leaves ;  cauliflower,  flowers ;  tomato,  fruit ; 
cocoa,  seed.  Different  parts  of  some  plants  are  edible  at  dif- 
ferent seasons,  as  bean  pods  when  young  and  beans  when  older. 
[Vegetables  containing  much  starch  are  not  edible  raw,  be- 
cause starch  cannot  be  digested  uncooked ;  such  are  pota- 
toes^ Vegetables  containing  a  large  percentage  of  starch  are 
called  starchy  vegetables  (see  pp.  6,  9)  to  indicate  this  fact  and 
designate  in  general  what  their  use  will  be  as  a  human  food, 
for  it  is  only  their  use  in  the  body  which  makes  them  of  im,- 
portance  as  foods.  Starchy  vegetables  keep  well.  They  are 
therefore  suitable  for  out-of -season  use. 

Starch  develops  in  plants  as  they  mature,  as  fat  does  in 
animals  as  they  grow  old. (Starch  eaten  in  excess  of  the  daily 
need  stores  fat  in  the  body  as  body-fat.  Cooked  starchy  foods 
supply  the  body  with  energ}^  that  endures  and  body-heat.) 

Other  constituents  beside  starch  are  present,  too,  in  so-called 
starchy  foods.  These  are  water,  mineral  matter,  often  some 
sugar,  fat  in  the  form  of  oil,  and  a  very  complex  substance 
called  protein  that  always  contains  some  nitrogen  compounds, 
protein  is  present  in  all  living  matter^^ 
(This  constituent  (protein)  enables  food  to  build  up  body- 
tissue  as  growth  requires  and  living  necessitates.  Mineral 
matter  serves  in  body-building  too  (the  skeleton  is  largely 
mineral  matter)  and  also  aids  digestion  in  various  way^. 
Water  does  the  latter  too.  Sugar  and  fat  furnish  heat-energy 
that  is  used  more  quickly  than  that  supplied  by  starch. 

PLANT  LIFE  AND  PLANT  FOODS  3 


VEGETABLES  (LEGUMES) 


CONSTITUENTS 


One  group  of  the  starchy  vegetables  contains  more  protein 
than  others.  (These  are  known  as  legumes.  They  are  peas, 
beans,  lentils^  They  have  a  power  all  vegetables  do  not  share. 
Other  plants  take  the  nitrogen  compounds  they  make  into  pro- 
tein from  the  soil.  Legumes  have  on  their  roots  small  tuber- 
cles or  nodules  in  which  there  are  bacteria  that  enable  them 
to  take  free  nitrogen  directly  from  the  atmosphere  and  store 
it  in  such  plants  for  food  use.  Peanuts  are  also  leguminous. 
Clover  though  not  a  human  food  is  a  leguminous  plant,  there- 
fore has  this  power.  By 
taking  the  free  nitrogen 
of  the  air  thus  and  making 
it  into  plant  protein  such 
plants  can  return  the  ni- 
trogen in  themselves  to  the 
soil  for  the  plants  that  can- 
not take  it  from  the  air. 
This  has  been  one  method 
Tubercles  on  clover  root  ^^  enriching  the  soil. 

There  is  in  many  vegetables  much  woody  fiber  forming  cov- 
erings and  inner  structure  of  the  plant.  This  fiber  is  called 
cellulose.  (Cellulose,  starch,  sugar  are  all  together  termed 
carbohydrates  in  Food  Science,  because  the  elements  of  which 
they  are  composed  are  alike)  These  differ  in  their  quanti- 
ties and  arrangement,  and  thus  make  the  different  carbohy- 
drates—  starch,  sugar,  cellulose.  In  general(  carbohydrates 
supply  heat-energyy  Sugar  us  the  carbohydrate  most  readily 
assimilated  by  the  human  system.  Starch  needs  preparation 
before  it  can  be  utilized.  Cellulose  is  only  slightly  digested, 
if  at  all,  and  then  only  from  very  young  plants.  (^There  is  little 
actual  cellulose  in  human  foods  as  eaterD 

4  FOOD—  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


CONSTITUTION 


(GREEN)  VEGETABLES 


''  Green  vegetables  "  is  a  term  used  to  signify  plant  foods 
eaten  fresh,  usually  raw  and  generally  young.  Industry  is  now 
canning  these  extensively.  Transportation  is  carrying  them 
from  all  climates  to  all  cities.  Both  these  practices  result  in  some 
storing  of  such  foods.  The  renewal  of  common  interest  in 
food-production  is  resulting  in  more  distributed  food-growth, 
hence  less  preservation  of  food  and  a  fresher  food-supply. 
This  is  most  desirable  for  all  food,  but  especially  important 
for  foods  that  have  as  one  of  their  functions  (that  is,  what 
they  do)  bringing  refreshment  through  their  own  freshness. 

Greenness  suggests  the  freshness  of  newness.  Green  vege- 
tation does  this  for  life  at  large.  Spring  renews  evidences  of 
life.  Summer  verdure  refreshes  life.  New  plant  foods  renew 
diet.  Green  vegetable  foods  keep  a  diet  fresh. 
•  Though  all  such  foods  are  not  used  uncooked,  many  usually 
are  ;  as  lettuce,  celery,  radishes.  They  are  most  propitiously 
so  used.  Some  are  served  simply  as  relishes,  but  it  is  as  salads 
that  their  use  is  to  be  developed.  Italy,  the  land  of  wealth  in 
plant  production,  gives  salads  as  a  form  of  food-preparation 
of  fresh  green  plants  with  olive  oil.  This  is  becoming  the 
general  food  practice  here  and  elsewhere.    Encourage  it. 

(^These  so-called  green  vegetables  (see  pp.  6, 8)  contain  much 
water,  some  cellulose,  a  relatively  large  percentage  of  mineral 
matter,  and  usually  a  distinctive  flavor.  Their  value  in  human 
nutrition  is  their  aid  to  the  general  maintenance  of  body- 
processes.  They  bring  freshness,  salts  needed,  and  water. 
CCellulose  (woody  fiber)  that  is  present  in  them  can  so  stimu- 
late the  alimentary  tract  as  to  enable  it  to  f ree^,  itself  of  waste 
products)  though  were  cellulose  itself  retained  in  the  body 
in  excess  it  would  endanger  intestinal  fermentations  that  pre- 
vent proper  digestion  of  any  food  and  so  undermine  health. 

PLANT  LIFE  AND  PLANT  FOODS  5 


COMPARISON  OF  VEGETABLES 


SUPPLEMENTING 


There  is  no  distinct  separation  between  the  different  groups 
of  vegetables  called  starchy  and  green.  One  group  passes 
gradually  into  the  other,  sometimes  a  plant  is  used  while  young 
as  green  and  as  starchy  when  old,  as  beans.  It  is  only  the 
extremes  of  both  that  show  marked  differences,'  as  do  pota- 
toes and  tomatoes.  The  difference  is,  however,  sufficient  in 
their  use  in  the  body  to  make  it  advisable,  when  two  vegetables 
are  eaten  together,  to  use  one  starchy  and  one  green  rather 
than  two  of  either.    See  the  table  below. 


Composition  of  Some  Common  Vegetables 


Water 

Starchy 
Vegetables 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Protein 

Ash  (indicates  Mineral  Matter) 

% 
75- 
70-3 
73- 
80.3 
79-9 
87.2 
87.6 
88.6 
88.5 
93-4 

Potatoes 
White 
Sweet 

Corn 

Parsnips 

Peas 

Beans 

Onions 

Carrots 

Beets 

Pumpkins 

% 
20.6 
27.4 
19.5 
16.I 

^3-3 

7-5 
9-5 
7.6 

7-9 
3-9 

% 
2. 

1.8 

5- 
1.4 

3-9 
2.2 
1.4 
I.I 

^•5 

2.4 

% 
I. 
I.I 

•7 

I  + 
.8- 

•7  + 
.6- 

I. 

I. 

I.I  + 

+  means  slightly  more  than 
—  means  slightly  less  than 

Green 
Vegetables 

Water 

% 

3-9 
3-5 
3-9 
3-2 

2.2 
1.8 

2.4 

1-3 
1.4 

.8 

•9 
2.1 

1.4 

.6 
1.6 

.4  + 

•5 
2.1 

Cabbage 

Celery 

Lettuce 

Cucumbers 

Tomatoes 

90-5 
94.5 
93-6 
95-1 
94-3 

Hundredths  over  5 

have  been  called  a 

tenth ;  under,  were 

dropped 

Spinach 

92-3 

(Examine  for  general  information  only) 


Adapted  mainly  from  Olsen's  "  Pure  Foods ' 


Add  the  solids  of  each  together.  Then  write  the  vegetables 
in  the  order  of  the  amount  of  water  that  these  solids  show  each 
must  have.  Consider  ash  mineral  salts.  Compare  the  quantity 
of  it  in  each  with  the  amount  of  the  other  solids  in  the  food. 
In  what  order  should  the  vegetables  be  arranged  to  show  this  ? 


FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


DISTINGUISHING 


DIFFERENCES  IN  VEGETABLES 


Experience  in  eating  teaches  much  about  differences  in 
vegetables  that  is  not  so  practically  learned  otherwise.  But 
science  alone  can  explain  what  is  experienced  and  give  in- 
formation that  living  could  not  disclose  without  such  study. 
Examination  of  the  chemical  composition  of  foods  shows  that 
some  are  much  alike  which  may  seem  different,  also  the  reverse. 

Though  refuse  is  purchased  it  is  not  usually  in  foods  as 
eaten.  The  water  in  the  edible  portion  of  food  is  consumed. 
Though  it  does  not  nourish,  it  serves  in  body-regulation. 

Which  vegetables  should  be  used  together  to  supplement 
one  another  ?  Which  should  not  be  because  they  would 
duplicate  one  another.?  Which  of  those  that  have  much 
starch  seem  more  nearly  like  ''  green  "  vegetables  ?  Are  they 
in  composition  ?  Parsnips  and  carrots  are  usually  considered 
similar.  See  their  composition.  Note  the  similarity  of  the 
composition  of  pumpkins  and  cabbage. 

For  Complete  Table  of  Food  Composition,  see  Index. 

Starchy,  leguminous,  and  green  vegetables  have  not  only 
general  differences  but  many  specific  variations  within  these 
groups.  These  alter  the  value  of  foods  and  their  combina- 
tion. Some  foods  nourish.  Some  make  a  diet  palatable. 
Others  by  adding  bulk  promote  peristalsis.  Still  others  serve 
in  regulation  of  body-fluids. 

How  foods  are  raised  affects  the  dangers  they  may  dis- 
tribute. Celery,  radishes,  and  such  other  ground-vegetables 
bring  soil-dangers.  All  vegetables  eaten  raw,  without  skins 
to  remove,  as  lettuce  and  salads,  generally  carry  the  dan- 
gers of  soil  fertilization,  dust,  and  general  handling.  Their 
freshness  need  not  be  impaired  to  insure  safety  ;  if  washed  in 
boiling  water  and  plunged  into  cold,  crispness  is  revived  and 
the  food  safer. 

PLANT  LIFE  AND  PLANT  FOODS  7 


PARTS  OF  VEGETABLES  ^^  AVAILABILITY 

The  waste  in  food  is  not  always  evident  even  when  real. 
Refuse  in  vegetables 

None  —  spinach,  tomatoes  skinned,  peas  and  beans  dried. 
7-15%  —  beans  (7%) ;  onions  ( 1 0%) ;  cabbage,  cucumbers,  lettuce  (15%). 
20-30%  —  potatoes  (also  sweet),  parsnips,  beets,  carrots,  celery  (20%); 

turnips  (30%). 
45-60%  —  green  peas  (45%) ;  squash  (50%);  sweet  corn  (60%). 

When  it  is  remembered  that  water  as  well  as  refuse  enters 
largely  into  the  composition  of  vegetables  as  procured,  it  is 
realized  that  bulk  is  a  significant  characteristic  of  vegetable 
food. 

Where  the  nutritive  substances  are  in  foods  and  how  they 
are  physically  arranged  affect  their  availability.  Potatoes 
have  an  outer  and  inner  skin.  Both  are  richer  in  protein  and 
salts  than  the  flesh  of  the  potato.  [  Potatoes  when  peeled  raw 
not  only  remove  more  nutrients  than  when  peeled  cooked, 
but  in  cooking  permit  the  nutrients  to  be  also  dissolved  out, 
as  potato  protein  is  in  soluble  form^^  Potato  cooking-water,  if 
the  process  is  begun  with  cold  water,  contains  |  of  the  pro- 
tein. But  if  plunged  in  boiling  water,  even  peeled  potatoes 
lose  less  than  J^  ;  unpeeled,  only  ^l-^. 

Slight  nutriment  (promote  digestion)  Palatability 

Eggplant  —  ^-^  water ;  solids  mainly  starch.   (Breading  increases  value.) 

Cabbage  —  ^-^  water.    Eaten  raw  retains  nutrients.    Cooked  loses  half. 

Cucumbers  —  over  y^^-  water.    Used  only  for  palatability.    No  food-value. 

Tomatoes  —  over  ^-^  water ;  sugar  over  \  solids  (sugar  and  protein  solu- 
ble. Use  juice  therefore) ;  some  malic  acid.  Remove  tomatoes  from 
tin  whenever  not  sealed  air-tight. 

Lettuce  —  over  ^-^  water.  Valued  for  chlorophyll  (green  coloring  matter). 
Contains  iron. 

Onions  —  valued  for  oils  giving  flavor.    Stimulating  to  digestion. 

Melons  —  solids  y^^,  mainly  sugar,  that  with  oils  and  acids  gives  the  flavor. 

8  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


USABLENESS  K^  CONSTITUENTS  IN  VEGETABLES 

Protein  and  simpler  compounds  (of  dietetic  value)  Tissue-Formation 

Celery  —  -^^  +  water.  Valued  for  nitrogen  compounds  significant  in  diet. 

Asparagus  —  over  -^^  water.  More  protein  than  many  vegetables,  also 
asparagin  (nitrogen  compound). 

Spinach  —  over  -f^  water;  protein  i  to  4  carbohydrates.  In  potatoes 
protein  i  to  10  carbohydrates. 

Beans  —  nearly  ^  protein  (more  than  in  meat) ;  less  fat  than  other  veg- 
etables or  cereals ;  ash  equal  to  that  of  cereals ;  rich  in  potash  and 
lime.  String  beans  nearly  y^^^  water;  as  eaten,  protein  2\  per  cent. 
Lima  beans  as  eaten  have  more  protein,  as  pods  are  discarded. 
Nutritive  and  aid  digestion  of  other  foods. 

Peas  —  similar.  Nutritious  as  vegetable  or  soup.  Canned  may  be  col- 
ored undesirably  with  copper  salts. 

Lentils  —  similar,  but  smaller.    Nutritious. 

Peanuts  —  similar  to  beans  but  much  more  fat.  Like  beans,  peas,  lentils 
(leguminous).  All  legumes  digest  slowly  and  require  much  intestinal 
work. 

For  starch,  sugar,  and  some  minerals  (these  furnish)  Heat  Energy 

Potatoes  —  white :  \  water ;  \  starch,  mainly ;  salts,  \  potash,  \  phos- 
phoric acid ;  J^-  protein.  Sweet :  more  solids ;  6  per  cent  sugar ; 
keep  less  well  (starch  more  stable  than  sugar). 

Corn  (sweet,  green) — |^  water ;  \  solids  (^  starch,  \  sugar,  -^-^  protein  when 
young).   (Carbohydrates  increase  with  ripening.) 

Parsnips  —  over  \  water ;  3  per  cent  sugar ;  3  per  cent  starch,  exceed- 
ingly fine  grains ;  more  fat ;  salts,  \  potash,  \  phosphoric  acid  (see 
potato  above) ;  more  fiber,  increasing  peristalsis ;  more  flavor  pro- 
moting palatability. 

Beets  —  \  the  solids  of  potato,  solids  \  sugar. 

Carrots  —  similar,  but  no  starch ;  sugar  and  pectose  as  carbohydrates. 

Turnips  —  similar,  no  starch  nor  sugar ;  pectose  mainly  as  carbohydrates. 

Squash  —  similar,  with  food-solids  starch  mainly.  Pumpkins  similar,  but 
less  solids.  (Sugar  is  soluble,  so  dissolves  in  water.  Baking  pre- 
vents loss.) 

(Facts  stated  above  are  in  the  main  from  Snyder's  "  Human  Foods.") 
PLANT  LIFE  AND  PLANT  FOODS  9 


VEGETABLE  CHARACTERISTICS 


MATURITY 


Plants  live.  They  grow  from  seeds.  They  develop  the 
constitution  of  their  plant  family.  Their  developing  is  called 
maturing.  They  blossom,  bear  fruit,  and  produce  seeds.  This 
process  repeated  season  after  season  is  known  as  reproduc- 
tion. Nature's  method  of  continuing  the  life  6f  vegetation 
is  by  physically  renewing  thus  its  products.  Plant  life  gives 
definitely  the  processes  of  plant-living. 

The  readiness  of  plants  ior  food-use  and  for  reproduction 
of  their  kind  is  not  usually  the  same,  because  in  forming  the 
seed  the  plant  changes  itself.  The  seed  itself  may  be  suitable 
food.  When  the  seed  is  a  human  food  the  rest  of  the  plant 
usually  is  not,  as  bean-pods.  Cucumbers  gone  to  seed  are 
not  good  food,  nor  are  potatoes  raised  for  seed.  When  other 
parts  than  the  seed  are  used  for  food,  these  are  usually  desir- 
able when  young  or  when  just  full-grown.  Cellulose  in  young 
plants  is  tender,  later  woody.  Green  vegetables  are  therefore 
better  young.  Starch  increases  with  maturity.  Sugar  when 
present  does,  too.  Foods  valued  for  these  constituents  are  of 
course  desirable  only  when  these  are  produced  in  them. 

Living  substances  in  the  main  form  human  foods.  Usually 
anything  in  food  not  derived  from  something  that  lives  itself 
is  not  human  food.  Often  such  substances  when  introduced 
into  food  are  not  included  in  order  to  nourish  the  body,  but  to 
keep  the  food  from  such  deterioration  as  would  make  its  use 
impossible.  It  is  only  commerce  overkeeping  food  and  indus- 
try using  inferior  food  that  introduce  non-food  materials  exten- 
sively into  human  food.  Some  condiments  are  of  other  than 
direct  living  origin.  (Common  salt  is,  and  is  necessary  to  lifeJ 

Experience  in  living  has  taught  humanity  in  which  stage 
of  development  each  plant  is  best  as  human  food.  This  age- 
long habit  is  followed  in  choosing  vegetable  foods. 

10  FOOD—  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


ALL  VEGETABLES 


VEGETABLE-PRESERVATION 


Conditions  under  which  different  foods  retain  desirable 
quaHty  indicate  the  necessities  in  preserving  them.  Preser- 
vation of  food  is  such  treatment  of  it  as  will  keep  it  in  suit- 
able condition  for  human  use.  Green  vegetables  even  in 
season  are  perishable.  Prompt  use  is  therefore  the  essential 
precaution  against  their  deterioration. 

Plants  are  living  until  they  decay.  They  need  the  condi- 
tions of  life,  as  air  to  breathe,  though  after  they  are  plucked 
they  need  no  longer  the  requirements  for  growth,  as  food. 
For  seasonal  use  low  temperature,  complete  cleanliness  of  re- 
ceptacles and  atmosphere,  including  protection  from  dust,  are 
usually  adequate  attention  in  markets,  shops,  homes.  , 

r  Green  vegetables  lose  freshness,  and  wilt.  Some  lose  sweet- 
ness ;  ("f resh  corn  and  peas  do)  Since  they  need  to  be  kept  in 
cool,  dry  air,  they  should  be  in  a  clean,  wholesome,  well-ventilated 
cellar  or  refrigerator.  Slightly  wilted  vegetables  revive  by  stand- 
ing in  water,  but  this  may  dissolve  out  their  salts,  also  some  pro- 
tein and  sugar.  Lettuce  wrapped  in  a  moistened  cloth  and 
placed  on  ice  remains  crisp.  If  leaves  discolor,  remove  at  once. 
Vegetables  should  not  be  washed  until  they  are  to  be  used,  as 
such  moisture  may  hasten  decay  or  mold-growth. 

Starchy  vegetables,  such  as  potatoes  and  beets,  need  to  be 
kept  where  it  is  cool  and  dry,  and  with  little  air  in  actual  contact 
with  them.  They  therefore  keep  well  piled  in  cool,  dark  bins. 
The  air  of  the  room  should,  however,  be  fresh.  Freezing  and 
thawing  changes  vegetable-composition  and  should  be  avoided. 
Sprouting  too  renders  a  vegetable  undesirable  for  food. 
^  The  regulation  of  moisture,  light,  temperature,  is  important 
because  the  degrees  of  these  affect  differently  the  growth  of 
the  various  bacteria  as  well  as  the  natural  processes  of  decay 
in  the  plant  itself. 


PLANT  LIFE  AND  PLANT  FOODS  11 


COOKING  VEGETABLES 


IN  GENERAL 


Cooking  food  tends  to  break  it  up,  thus  preparing  it  for 
digestion.  Cellulose  in  vegetables  needs  loosening  and  soften- 
ing, so  the  nutritious  substances  associated  with  it  may  not  be 
lost,  because  so  fixed  in  this  practically  indigestible  fiber  that 
the  digestive  juices  of  the  body  do  not  reach  them.  Besides 
the  aid  of  cooking,  chopping  vegetables  fine  assists  in  their 
digestion  as  often  will  treating  a  vegetable,  as  spinach,  with 
vinegar.    Thoroiigh  mastication  always  increases  digestion. 

Germs  in  food  are  generally  destroyed  or  rendered  harm- 
less by  cooking.  This  increases  not  only  the  safety  of  food 
but  also  the  probability  of  undisturbed  digestion. 

Flavors  of  food  are  sometimes  developed  by  cooking,  but 
they  may  also  be  lost.  In  cooking  vegetables  the  latter  is  the 
usual  danger.  Those  delicately  flavored,  as  cauliflower,  cannot 
be  cooked  long  or  in  much  water.  Those  with  strong  juices 
often  need  several  waters  and  longer  cooking ;  cabbage  may. 
Vegetables  cooked  uncut  retain  flavor  that  cut  they  would 
lose.  Cooking-water  from  vegetables  contains  many  of  their 
nutrients,  especially  salts,  which  have  dissolved  out.  It  should 
be  used  in  dressings  or  soups.  This  necessitates  thorough 
washing  of  all  vegetables  and  removal  of  too  strongly  flavored 
parts.  Palatability  of  food  is  affected  by  flavor.  Digestion  is 
stimulated  by  palatable  food. 

Young  vegetables  require  less  cooking  than  old.  The  dif- 
ference in  starch  present  partly  accounts  for  this.  Starch 
inadequately  cooked  makes  work  for  the  body  by  burdening 
it  with  undigested  food.  Thoroughly  cooked  starch  does 
work  for  the  body  by  providing  it  with  energy.  All  vegeta- 
bles need  to  be  salted  as  they  are  cooked.  Fresh  vegetables 
require  less  cooking  than  wilted.  The  water  lost  must  be 
returned  in  cooking ;  the  toughened  fiber  must  be  revived. 

12  FOOD —-WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


SUMMARY 


CARE  —  PREPARATION  —  USE 


The  structure  of  vegetables  controls  somewhat  the  manner 
of  cooking.  Rapid,  hard  boiling  is  needed  for  very  much  in- 
cased vegetables,  as  asparagus,  especially  if  also  delicately 
flavored.  Baked  food  cooks  in  steam  generated  from  the 
water  in  the  food  itself.  The  salts  of  foods  are  thus  retained 
and  the  starch  is  more  fully  transformed  for  digestion. 

In  cooking,  physical  structure  changes,  germs  are  destroyed, 
flavor  is  preserved  or  modified^  preparation  for  digestion 
begins.  ^ 

The  indigestible  material  in  a  food  affects  its  nutritive  value 
in  several  ways.  The  separation  of  it  from  the  nourishing  sub- 
stances is  an  essential  precaution  in  food-preparation.  (Cook- 
ing, grinding  or  chopping,  masticating,  dissolving,  aid?) 

Raw  food  needs  great  care.    Its  freshness  is  of  real  value. 

Vegetables  should  be  clean  themselves,  kept  so,  and  han- 
dled by  no  diseased  persons.  Decaying  vegetables  are  un- 
wholesome. The  effect  of  unsoundness  spreads  beyond  the 
parts  seen  as  unsound.  It  rarely  can  be  wholly  removed  by 
removing  these.  Germ-development  is  prevented  by  low  tem- 
perature, pure  dust-free  air,  and  sunlight.  Pure  water  too  is 
protective  against  germs,  so  long  as  it  remains  pure. 

Intelligent  care  of  food  is  a  health-help,  also  an  ecofiomy. 

What  humanity  has  found  suits  its  need  is  disclosed  by  the 
food-supply.  This  is  general  advice  from  race-experience. 
Living  acquaints  one  with  this.  But  only  learning  what  each 
food  is  and  does  can  teach  when  each  should  be  used.  Seasons 
and  stages  of  development  are  given  with  the  specific  foods. 
(  Grains  are  more  closely  related  in  composition  to  legumi- 
nous vegetables  than  to  other  vegetable  foods)  They  serve 
similarly  in  the  diet.  Fruits,  spices,  nuts,  differ  somewhat  from 
grains  and  vegetables  and  serve  different  food-purposes. 

FLANT  LIFE  AND  PLANT  FOODS  13 


VEGETABLE-SELECTION 


DIFFERENT  VEGETABLES 


Vegetables  have  value  in  human  diet  only  as  they  serve 
directly  or  indirectly  some  food-need  of  humanity.  The  condi- 
tion of  vegetables  affects  their  food-usefulness  as  much  as  does 
•their  kind.  All  kinds  do  not  serve  alike  ;  nor  do  all  qualities. 
Inferior  quality  of  the  right  kind  for  the  purpose  may  even  cause 
disease.  All  food  should  always  be  a  health-help,  strength- 
giver,  work-aid.  To  make  it  so,  //  must  be  selected  with  knowl- 
edge of  the  food-7teed  and  quality  of  the  food  eaten. 

Selection  of  vegetables  suitable  for  human  use  is  a  daily 
occupation  of  those  determining  the  food  of  humanity.  Food 
may  through  manipulation  in  preparation  be  made  to  appear 
well  irrespective  of  its  actual  quality.  This  is  to  be  avoided. 
It  menaces  health  and  may  life.  Safe  and  unsafe  food,  sound 
and  unsound  food,  need  to  be  easily  distinguishable.  Over- 
ripe tomatoes  have  developed  in  them  acid  not  present  earlier. 
This  makes  them  undesirable  and  may  dangerous.  Prepara- 
tion with  seasoning,  as  in  catsup,  may  make  such  tomatoes  a 
palatable  food,  but  does  not  overcome  the  result  in  that  food 
of  the  overripeness  of  the  tomatoes.  Such  food-preparation 
is  to  be  discouraged  by  disuse. 

Digestion  is  hindered  by  selection  of  unfit  food.  Mal- 
nutrition instead  of  nutrition  results.  Underripe  food  some- 
times contains  undeveloped  substances  not  ready  for  human 
use.  Green  apples  do.  Foods  picked  green  rarely  ripen  natu- 
rally. Choose  those  gathered  ready  for  use,  and  use  promptly. 
Overkept  food  may  have  lost  what  it  was  desirable  it  should 
retain  or  may  have  developed  what  it  is  essential  it  should  not 
have.  Such  food  is  both  more  exposed  to  contamination  and 
less  able  to  resist  it.  Vegetables  may  carry  human  disease 
from  the  soil,  receptacles,  or  persons.  They  may  also  be 
diseased  themselves.    This  destroys  their  value  as  food. 

14  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


PRECAUTION 


PLANT-PRODUCTION 


The  human  need  for  food  is  considered  in  Food  Science, 
pp.  160-224.  Precaution  in  production  of  vegetables  is  of 
great  significance.  Such  food  as  green  vegetables,  being  often 
eaten  raw  and  being  without  covering  to  remove,  such  as  fruit 
has,  can  carry  disease  from  all  sources.  Fertilization  of  green 
gardens  with  waste  products  of  living,  as  sewage,  may  propa- 
gate human  disease  and  is  to  be  avoided.  Scrupulous  cleanli- 
ness is  essential  with  such  foods.  Even  washing  in  boiled 
water  vegetables  to  be  eaten  raw  is  advised  if  the  purity  of 
the  water-supply  is  in  any  doubt. 

Plants  show  their  health  and  vegetables  their  quality  readily 
upon  observation.  But  skill  in  seeing  comes  only  with  looking 
and  learning  for  what  to  look.  Plants  droop  and  die  when  not 
sound  or  cared  for  well.  Vegetables  wilt  and  decay  when  their 
vitality  is  waning.  Such  indications  show  the  state  of  health  of 
the  food  itself.  The  human  disease  germs  a  food  may  carry 
may  have  no  apparent  effect  upon  the  food  itself  ;  the  danger 
is  to  those  who  eat  food  so  laden.  Precaution  against  dust 
everywhere,  flies,  insects,  and  any  form  of  contact  with  illness 
or  waste-products  is  too  little  practiced  anywhere. 

Vegetables  differ  widely  in  coarseness  and  fineness  accord- 
ing to  the  care  exercised  in  their  production.  This  is  notably 
so  in  lettuce.  Superior  production  should  be  practiced.  Such 
difference  in  food-quality  is  not  to  be  confused  with  natural 
difference  in  degrees  of  fineness,  as  in  cabbage  and  cauliflower, 
that  are  otherwise  so  much  alike.  Both  these  are  desirable. 
^Cabbage  is  coarse,  yet  it  can  be  chopped  and  so  prepared  *" 
as  to  be  a  delicate  food.  This  precaution  should  be  taken. 
Cabbage  is  more  digestible  so.^ 

Digestibility  of  food  as  well  as  its  composition  determines 
its  nourishing  power. (^About  85%  of  vegetables  is  digestible/\ 

PLANT  LIFE  AND  PLANT  FOODS  IB 


PLANT  POODS 


INCLUSION 


Plant  foods  include  more  than  vegetables.  Grains,  fruits, 
spices,  nuts  are  also  products  of  vegetation.  These  enhance  the 
beauty  of  Nature  as  well  as  aid  in  sustaining  physical  life.  Many 
of  them  carry  their  charm  into  food  and  as  food  do  more  than 
nourish  by  supplying  beauty  too.  They  support  life  by  further- 
ing the  processes  that  make  food  of  possible  use  to  the  body. 
The  wonder  of  the  working  together  of  living  things  is  nowhere 
more  real  than  in  the  food  realm.  Food  sustains  life.  What 
it  is  thus  passes  into  what  food  does  for  the  body.  This  in 
turn  makes  possible  the  work  the  person  does.  Plants  bear 
fruit  that  bears  further  fruit  through  its  value  in  human  life. 

Grains  have  played  a  race-long  part  in  the  food  of  human- 
kind. Around  them  clings  much  of  the  mystery  of  the  har- 
vest, celebrated  wherever  the  fertility  of  Nature  stirs  the 
^  emotions  of  humankind.  HThe  compactness  and  richness  of 
grains  has  made  them  symbolic  of  productiveness!)  Yet  to 
humankind  to-day  grains  as  grains  seem  less  human  foods 
than  many  substances  that  appear  in  the  form  in  which  they 
grow,  such  as  vegetables,  fruits,  nuts.  Grains  lose  their  iden- 
tity in  usually  being  ground  into  flours. 

With  the  coming  of  peoples  from  other  lands  have  come 
too  their  foods  for  them  and  to  us.  Thus  have  come  forms 
of  grain  foods  new  here  and  of  value.  Not  a  few  of  these  are 
preparations  that  serve  as  vegetable  foods,  as  doesjnacaroni. 
See  Foreign  Foods,  p.  214. 

Cereals  have  of  late  assumed  greater  importance  as  break- 
fast foods  and  for  children.  Though  this  is  not  denied  them 
by  science,  science  emphasizes  it  less  than  does  commerce. 
f  Some  cereals  serve  as  vegetables  ;  hominy  does.  Rice  (impol- 
1  ished  and  uncoated)  like  potato  serves  as  a  palatable  starchy 
vegetable. 

IS  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


GEOGRAPHICALLY 


GRAINS 


The  conditions  under  which  grains  will  grow  are  such  as  tp 
make  their  widely  distributed  growth  possible. 


PROBABLE  NATIVE  HOME  OF  GRAINS 


(Redrawn  from  Frederic  LeRoy  Sargent's  "Com  Plants."  Used  by  permission  and  special 
arrangement  with  Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  as  are  the  cuts  of  different  grains  on  pp.  20-2 1) 

DIAGRAM  OF  CROP-PRODUCTION  IN  UNITED  STATES  — 1909 


(From  the  Thirteenth  Census  of  the  United  States,  1910) 
PLANT  LIFE  AND  PLANT  FOODS 


17 


DISTRIBUTION 

ACREAGE  BY  STATES  — 1909 


(From  the  Thirteenth  Census  of  the  United  States,  1910) 


CORN 


ACREAGE  BY  STATES  — 1909 


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a  200,000  to  300,000 
9  100,000  to  200,000 
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7 

1    V.VA 

•  •  •  •  •>ftV5A  •  b>C^--«^ 

0  K  L  A. 

••••• 

•  TEXAS* 
•••••• 

ARK./ 

Us 

/•9      „>>— 

■>         y 

'^--O^ 

)fla.\ 

The  heavy  lines  (  — 

-)  show  geographic  divisions     \        j*                                                                 \      \ 

(From  the  Thirteenth  Census  of  the  United  States,  19 lo) 

IS  FOOD —WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


IN  UNITED  STATES 

CEREALS 


CEREALS 

ACREAGE  BY  STATES— 1909 


(From  the  Thirteenth  Census  of  the  United  States,  1910) 


Acreage  in 

Barley 

Buckwheat 

Oats 

Rice 

Rye 

New  England 

16,242 

28,725 

223,221 

13,221 

Middle  Atlantic 

87733 

592,159 

2,518,886 

472,132 

North  Central,  East 

1,007,102 

139.971 

11,225,445 

968,558 

West 

4,762,928 

25.955 

15,710,495 

470,582 

South  Atlantic 

15,561 

84,864 

1,368,832 

27,080 

157,546 

South  Central  East 

5.388 

4,772 

870,762 

560 

50,091 

West 

14,253 

121 

1,276,534 

582,523 

5,926 

Mountain 

313,606 

316 

1,164,204 

32,115 

Pacific 

1.475.893 

1,165 

801,062 

25.390 

(From  the  Thirteenth  Census  of  the  United  States,  1910) 

On  five  skeleton  maps  (or  trace  maps  of  the  United  States  if  such  working-maps 
are  not  available)  dot  in  the  above  facts  as  in  maps  shown  for  wheat  and  corn.  Com- 
pare wheat  and  com  on  maps  showing  acreage  with  the  statement  below. 

Cereals  191,395,963  Acreage  in  United  States —  1909 


Barley 

Buck- 
wheat 

Corn 

Oats 

Rice 

(Rough) 

Rye 

Wheat 

7,698,706 

878,048 

98,382,665 

35,159.441 

610,175 

2,195,561 

44,262,592 

PLANT  LIFE  AND  PLANT  FOODS 


19 


Rice 


Oats 


CEREALS  —  COMPOSITION 

Cereals  as  human  foods  are  grain-seeds. 

Grains  are  harvested  when  matured. 

Seeds  are  compact  and  rich  in  nutrients. 

Their  richness  is  due  to  the  germ  that 
renews  their  Ufe  and  also  much  plant-food.  This  supplies  the 
needs  for  early  plant-development  when  the  seed  becomes  de- 
tached from  the  plant  that  has  been  its  living  connection  with 
its  food-supply.  Thus  another  plant  forms  and  later  produces 
seeds.   These  reproduce  again  the  part  of  vegetation  the  plant  is. 

Composition  of  Cereals 


Water 

%1N 

Protein 

Fat 

CH 

MM 

14-3 

Buckwheat 

6.1 

I. 

77-^ 

1.4 

12 

7 

Rye 

7-1 

•9 

78.5 

.8 

12 

4 

Rice 

7.8 

4 

794 

4 

12 

9 

Corn  meal 

8.9 

2.2 

75-1 

•9 

lO 

8 

Barley 

9-3 

I. 

77.6 

1-3 

12 

5 

Wheat,  Winter 

10.4 

I. 

75.6 

•5 

II 

6 

Spring 

11.8 

I.I 

75- 

•5 

II 

8 

Graham  (flour) 

137 

2.2 

70-3 

2. 

12 

I 

Entire  wheat 

14.2 

1.9 

70.6 

1.2 

7 

2 

Oatmeal 

15.6 

7-3 

68. 

1.9 

The  concentration  of  the  nourishing  substances  and  the 
widely  distributed  growth  of  grains  make  them  foods  of  common 
value  wherever  humanity  lives.  The  usual  palatability  of  foods 
made  of  grain  flours  or  meals  makes  their  constant  use  in  the 
human  diet  possible  and  desirable.  Compare  composition  of 
cereals  with  that  of  other  human  foods. 


Ba^'ley 


General  Composition 

OF  Human  Foods 

Water 

%IN 

Protein 

Fat 

CH 

MM 

8c^90 

7-14 

40-60 

Vegetables 
Dry  grains 
Meats 

I-14 
I  5-20+ 
15-20 

1-2 

1-3 

15-30 

3-85 

60 

2-5 
2-5 

I-I5 

20 


FOOD—  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


Maize 


CEREALS  —  PREPARATION 


Grains  are  prepared  for  human  food. 

Dried  they  lose  water  ;  milled,  salts. 

Cereals  require  much  water ;  also  cooking. 

The  cooking-time  for  cereals  not  partially  ^^^^^-^^^ 
cooked  indicates  the  difficulty  of  breaking  up  the  grain  so  that 
its  constituents  can  be  made  available  for  food.  See  table  be- 
low. Starch  is  the  chief  constituent  that  requires  much  change. 
As  always,  it  needs  prolonged  cooking  to  make  it  into  the  sub- 
stance (a  form  of  sugar)  that  is  soluble,  therefore  more  digestible. 

Cooking  Cereals  *  (Adaptation  of  facts  from  Miss  Farmer) 


Cereal 

Water 

Hours 

Cereal-Preparation 

Com  meal 

iC 

3iC 
4C 

3 

I 

Preparations  of  corn  :  samp, 
I  C    7naize7ta^  homiiiy,  etc. 

Oatmeal  (coarse) 

iC 

4C 
ifC 

3 

Preparations  of  oats:  H-O, 
Rolled  ox  Quaker  Oats,  etc., 
I  C     Rolled  Ave?  I  a 

Rice  (steamed) 

iC 

2f-3iC 

(according 

to  age) 

(Keep  these  preparations  in  glass 
and  stopper.   Use  promptly) 

Rye  flakes 
Wheat  (steamed 
and  rolled) 

iC 
iC 

3fC 

Wheatlet,   Wheatena,   Wheat 
I  C     Gerfjt,  Wheat  Toasted 

Cooking  with  water  changes  proportions  of  ingredients  : 
Raw  oatmeal :   W  7.2%  —  P  1 5.6%  —  F  7.3%  —  CH  68% 
Cooked:  /^^84.5%  — /^  2.8%  — /^  5%  —  (T//"  1 1.5% 

Different  cereals,  because  of  different  composition,  are  advis- 
able at  different  seasons,  according  to  their  heat-giving  power. 
\  Oatmeal,  corn  meal,  (barley,  rye,  wheat)  ground,  gluten,  hominy,  rice. 
/  In  winter^  usefro^n  left  to  ?ight.   In  sujn7ner^  use/rojn  right  to  left.  7 

Cereals  are  cooked  as  gruels  for  infants  and  invalids  in  need^^ 
of  liquid  food  ;  as  porridge  (with  less  water)  for  children.    For 
adults  in  health,  cereals  are  cooked  as  dry  as  palatability  per- 
mits and  should  be  thoroughly  masticated  to  insure  digestion. 


PLANT  LIFE  AND  PLANT  FOODS 


21 


GRAIN  FOODS 


QUALITY 


y  There  are  over  50  kinds  of  cereal-preparations  on  sale. 
More  than  half  of  these  have  appeared  within  a  decade.  They 
differ  little  in  food- value.  Their  cost  greatly  exceeds  that  of 
the  cereals  from  which  they  come.  The  origingil  cereal  is  as 
valuable  as  a  food.    It  usually  needs  longer  cooking. 

Some  of  the  protein  of  grains  is  gluten.    The  most  glu- 
ten is  found  in  the  protein  of  wheat  (14%)  and  rye  (10%). 
Barley,  buckwheat,  corn,  contain  less  gluten  (7%-9%).    This 
characteristic  affects  the  usableness  of  a  flour  for  raised  bread, 
.  as  it  is  the  duten  that  enables  bread  to  be  made  into  loaves. 

( 

V     (Place  2T  flour  in  cheese-cloth.    Twist  into  bag  and  knead  in  water. 
I  Starch  is  thus  removed.    Gluten  mass  remains.    Pull  it.) 

/         Gluten  if  not  creamy-white  and  elastic  makes  poor  bread. 

^  As  rye  is  the  only  flour  besides  wheat  in  which. there  is  a  large 

(  percentage  of  gluten,  it  is  the  only  other  flour  valuable  for 

^raised  bread.    Other  flours  are  mixed  with  wheat  for  raised 

bread  or  made  into  flat  breads. 

Baked  bread  is  from  J  to  ^  water.  When  i  water,  bread 
is  poor  and  keeps  poorly.  It  molds  readily.  Bread  needs 
to  be  made  of  ingredients  of  good  quality.  Eating  it,  even 
masticating  it,  with  other  foods  increases  digestion  of  both  it 
and  them.  Bread  is  a  niitritiotis  food  of  perniane7it  palata- 
bility.  Bread  is  combined  in  the  diet  with  butter,  eggs,  milk. 
When  these  are  in  the  bread  eaten,  they  should  be  decreased 
in  the  diet. 

Rising-agents  used  in  breads  are  yeasts  and  baking-powders. 
Baking-powders  require  less  time  to  raise  mixtures  than  do 
yeasts.  But  baking-powders  leave  a  non-food  residue  ;  yeast 
does  not.  Foods  raised  with  baking-powders  are  therefore 
considered  less  digestible  than  yeast-leavened  foods. 

22  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


COMBINED 


GRAIN  FOODS 


The  fact  that  starch  is  the  principal  ingredient  of  all  grain 
foods  and  of  starchy  vegetables  too  makes  each  when  pres- 
ent in  the  diet  affect  the  quantity  of  the  others  desirable  at 
the  same  time. 

Rich  unsweetened  flour  foods  unite  nutritiously  with  soups    r 
and  salads.    Crackers  are  dry  and  have  more  fat  and  starch    V 
than  bread  and  less  protein.    They  combine  with  milk  and      1 
cheese  acceptably.    Pastry  to  which  fruits  or  meats  are  added  ^ 
in  the  making  are  substantial  foods.    Use  as  such. 

Sweetened  flour-mixtures,  as  cake,  because  not  desirable 
with  meats,  soups,  salads,  form  another  course  in  a  meal. 
Fruits  and  ices  supplement  cake  palatably. 

Grain  foods  are  usually  ground  for  human  use. 


U 


Grinding  buckwheat 
PLANT  LIFE  AND  PLANT  FOODS 


23 


WHEAT 


MILLING 


Many  conditions  affect  somewhat  the  composition  of  grains. 
Wheats  illustrate  this.  The  variety  of  wheat,  soil,  climate,  all 
affect  the  composition  of  the  resulting  grain.  The  constitu- 
ents that  vary  significantly  are  starch  and  protein.  Wheat  is 
planted  in  the  fall  or  spring.  It  is  called  winter  or  spring  wheat 
according  to  the  time  of  planting.  Winter  wheats  are  usually 
softer  than  spring.  Soft  wheat  contains  less  gluten  (this  is  a 
protein)  and  somewhat  more  starch  than  hard.    (See  p.  20.) 

Different  wheats  are  used  differently.  It  is  a  very  hard 
\y  variety  of  wheat  which  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  maca- 
roni. There  are  white  and  red  wheats  as  well  as  hard  and 
soft.  The  grinding  of  wheat-grains  makes  further  differences 
in  the  grades  of  flours.  These  serve  different  purposes  ac- 
cording to  their  constitution  as  well  as  composition. 

Constituents  of  the  grain  are  not  so  arranged  in  it  as  to  be 
found  uniformly  distributed  throughout  it.  See  diagram  be- 
low. (Starch  is  usually  in  largest  quantity  near  the  center  and 
protein  near  the  hull^  Wheat-hulls  themselves  make  the  bran 
used  by  cattle  for  food.  The  proportion  of  mineral  salts  and 
protein  in  it  are  higher  than  in  the  flours  used  as  human  food. 
In  bran :  P  1 5%  ;  salts,  8% 
In  flour:  /'8%-i4%;  salts,  i%-2%.— Olsen 

Milling  flour  follows  harvesting  and  winnowing.  "  Screening  "  removes 
everything  not  grain.  "Scouring"  cleans  the  grain.  ''Breaking  "with  heavy 
rollers  grinds  it.  "  Bolting  "  sifts  it.  There  are  5  breaks  and  many  siftings 
through  bolting  cloth  of  increasing  fineness. 

Products  of  Milling 

"  Scalpings,"  coarsest;  " dustings,"  finest;  all 

others  are  called  "middlings." 

Siftings  are  mixed  according  to  fineness. 

Wheat-grain    Bran  is  last  scalping  and  is  cellulose  mainly    Wfieat-grain 

(With  covering)        but  with  much  protein  and  salts  fixed  in  it.    (No  covering) 


24 


FOOD— WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


WHOLESOMENESS 


FLOUR 


Bread,  the  ''  staff  of  life,"  is  a  staple  food  of  humanity. 

Every  one  may  not  see  a  wheat-field  and  flour-mill  as  related 
to  making  bread.  All  may  not  even  realize  that  flour  is  the 
principal  ingredient  in  this,  but  it  is.  Descriptions  of  fields  and 
mills  show  but  vaguely  the  growth  and  activity  through  which 
flour  is  produced.  Only  seeing  the  processes  makes  real  the 
part  the  field  and  mill  have  in  their  product  —  flour  and  its 
products,  flour-mixture  foods. 

(Ask  parents  or  teachers  to  make  such  seeing  possible.  If  it  cannot  be 
now,  reserve  it  as  something  to  be  done  when  the  opportunity  offers.) 

Wheat  grows  from  different  seeds  and  at  different  seasons. 
It  is  ground  into  flour.  It  is  milled  as  many  different  flours  : 
as  entire-wheat,  graham,  white  bread-flour,  pastry-flour,  and 
macaroni-flour.    Use,  if  possible,  bread-  and  pastry-flour. 

Other  grains,  as  rye,  rice,  corn,  grow  similarly.  They  are 
similarly  treated  and  serve  as  flour  or  meal.  See  all  flours, 
also  different  qualities.    Use  as  many  as  possible. 

Flour  is  always  the  product  of  grinding  grain.)  The  quality 
of  the  grain,  the  mixing  of  the  products  of  the  various  sift- 
ings,  the  care  in  handling  and  storing  the  flour,  and  the 
health  of  workers  determine  the  quality  and  wholesomeness 
of  flour-products.  Grains  must  be  dry  and  clean,  and  kept  so. 
Otherwise  they  become  diseased  and  carry  illness  instead  of 
health-giving  food  to  humanity. 

Composition  of  food  substances  largely  controls  their  usefulness, 
but  their  characteristics  control  their  usableness. 
What  is  in  a  food  feeds  the  body.  But  how  na- 
ture has  arranged  and  composed  food-materials 
affects  whether  they  can  be  of  use  in  the  body. 
Bran  even  finely  ground  is  not  digestible.  When 
mixed  with  other  siftings,  as  in  graham  flour,  it 
Oat-grain    Still  does  not  digest  and  may  irritate  the  intestine.       Wheat 


PLANT  LIFE  AND  PLANT  FOODS 


25 


FLOURS 


m 


COMPOSITION 


Grains  are  dry.  So  therefore  are  the  flours  made  from  them. 
These  contain  relatively  little  water.  Wheat  flour  of  good 
quality  takes  up  water  to  about  two  thirds  its  own  weight. 
;  Starch  is  the  substance  of  which  there  is  most  in  flour.  It 
forms  about  three  fourths  of  the  weight  of  floun)  This  makes 
flour-mixtures  heat-giving  and  energy  foods..  Protein,  the 
tissue-building  substance  in  food,  is  present  in  flours  in  larger 
quantity  than  in  most  plant  foods.  There  is  approximately 
P  io%  —  Wio%— F  i-2%— MM  1-2%.  That  amount 
of  fat  is  large  for  plant  foods.  Animal  foods  contain  much 
more.  The  mineral  salts  are  present  in  relatively  high  propor- 
tion, but,  as  noted,  are  not  always  fully  available  to  the  body 
as  they  exist  in  grains  and  flours. 

/     Gluten  is  the  constituent  that  makes  a  moist  mass  of  flour 
cohere  as  it  expands  when  heated.  ' 

Comparison  of  the  Composition  of  Different  Flours 


Water 

Salts 

Fat 

%IN 

Protein 

Starch 

II 

I. 

1.9 

Entire  wheat 

14 

72 

II 

1.8 

2.2 

Graham 

13 

71 

12 

1-5 

I.I 

V^hite 

II 

75 

lO 

1-3 

•9 

Macaroni 

13 

74 

13 

1.9 

Corn  meal 

9 

75 

12 

.4 

•3 

Rice 

8 

79 

y 


Wheat  flour  that  is  not  creamy-white  is  usually  inferior. 
/  Pastry-flour  is  wheat  flour  with  the  gluten  largely  removed. 

It  is  mainly  starch.    It  makes  more  delicate  mixtures. 
Macaroni  flour  is  also  from  wheat.    It  has  more  gluten  than  is 

usual  in  wheat  bread-flour.  Macaroni  is  used  as  a  vegetable. 
Corn  meal  and  rice  both  lack  gluten.    When  used  in  breads 

they  need  to  be  mixed  with  flour  to  be  cohesive.    Alone 

they  are  friable  and  crumble.    Use  as  vegetables  too. 


26 


FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


COMPARISON 


BREADS 


(Raised  bread  is  leavened  bread,  whether  raised  by  yeast  or 
other  rising-agents,  The  earhest  breads  known  were  unleav- 
ened. They  were  made  of  ground  grain  mixed  with  water. 
They  were  formed  into  flat  cakes  and  baked  on  hot  stones  or 
allowed  to  dry.  It  was  noticed  that  dough  grew  in  bulk  while 
unbaked.  This  made  it  porous  and  light  when  baked.  Bread 
is  now  thus  made. 

Breads  are  to-day  made  of  flour  (preferably  rich  in  gluten) ; 
water  or  milk  ;  yeast  for  leavening,  with  sugar  to  further  fer- 
mentation ;  salt  for  seasoning ;  usually  butter  or  lard  to  enrich 
and  make  tender  in  texture. 

It  is  gluten  that  holds  the  yeast  distributed  through  the 
mass  as  the  bread  is  kneaded.  Later  it  holds  the  gas  formed 
as  the  yeast  grows.  It  is  thus  that  the  loaf  is  expanded. 
Baking  hardens  gluten,  so  forms  the  loaf. 

Comparison  of  Composition  of  Breads  of  Different  Flours 


IV 

MM 

F 

%IN 

P 

CH 

38 
36 

35 

1-3 
1-5 
I.I 

•9 
1.8 

1-3 

Entire  wheat  bread 
Graham  bread 
White  bread 

10 
10 
9 

50 

53 

Comparison  of  Composition  of  Different  Breads 

IV 

MM 

F 

%IN 

P 

CH 

tV 

(Does  not  differ 
greatly) 

7^(7  — 

Tfo  + 
2^(7"" 

Flour 

Bread 

Bread  with  lard 

Milk  bread 

1- 

f  + 

If 

i  + 

The  difference  in  water  present  in  breads  is  slight,  also  that 
of  starch.  Milk  adds  the  protein  of  milk  and  thus  increases  this 
in  milk-bread  by  about  i  % .  Lard  or  butter  slightly  increases 
the  fat.  Water  bread  dries  more  quickly  than  the  richer  breads. 


PLAKT  LIFE  AND  PLANT  FOODS 


27 


BREAD-MAKING 


CARE 


In.  bread-making  much  happens.  Science  now  explains  the 
changes  that  occur.  Yeast  grows  while  in  warm  dough.  This 
causes  a  fermentation.  Carbon  dioxid  gas  is  formed,  also 
alcohol.  The  gas  and  steam  expand  the  loaf  until  high  heat 
in  baking  checks  further  growth  of  yeast.  This  heat  vapor- 
izes the  alcohol,  so  it  is  not  left  in  the  bread.   • 

Besides  the  yeast  that  raises  bread,  other  organisms  are 
present  Many  of  these  may  produce  undesirable  effects,  one 
of  which  is  the  souring  of  bread.  This  happens  when  bread 
has  been  allowed  to  rise  too  long  or  bread  sponge  is  left  un- 
covered. Active  yeast  and,  after  rising,  prompt  baking  in  a 
well-heated  oven  tend  to  prevent  bread  from  souring  or  falling. 
Heating  the  milk  used  lessens  such  danger,  as  does  warming 
flour  before  mixing  bread. 

Baking  bread  may  not  destroy  all  germs  present,  but  it 
lessens  the  probability  of  their  further  activity.  As  molds 
and  bacteria  readily  grow  in  bread,  it  requires  proper  care.  It 
needs  to  be  kept  in  a  clean,  ventilated  box,  not  exposed  to 
dust  nor  handled  by  diseased  persons.  Bread  not  made  at 
home  should  be  promptly  wrapped  after  cooling. 

Science  found  in  examination  of  lOO  loaves  from  lOO  shops 

14  unwrapped  loaves  each  coated  with  over  10,000  bacteria. 

II  wrapped  loaves  from  clean  shops  averaged  only  371  bacteria  each. 

8s%)  wrapped  had  less  than  1 000  bacteria ;  62%  unwrapped  more  than  1 000. 

(From  ^&  J aurnal  0/  the  A  luerican  Medical  Association,  July  6,  1912.) 

For  children  bread  needs  to  be  baked  slowly  at  first.  It  is  thus 
made  drier.  After  the  crust  is  formed  the  moisture  is  retained. 
Cooling  bread  uncovered  in  clean,  fresh  air  makes  the  crust 
hard.  In  the  crust  itself  some  of  the  starch  is  converted  into 
soluble  form  that  tastes  sweeter  and  is  more  readily  digested. 
This  happens  also  in  toasting  bread,  especially  in  oven-toast. 

28  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


USE 


RISING-AGENTS 


Making  flour-mixtures  light  has  been  brought  about  in 
different  ways  through  the  ages  that  cooking  has  been  prac- 
ticed. Present-day  methods  probably  include  something  from 
each  of  those  of  the  past.  But  they  are  now  applied  with 
more  accurate  knowledge  of  what  will  happen.  They  can 
therefore  now  be  used  to  do  what  is  desired,  while  avoiding 
what  would  be  unfavorable  for  human  food.  Better  results 
are  thus  possible. 

(Air  that  fills  the  spaces  between  the  cells  of  food,  when      "^ 
heated,  expands.    So  does  air  that  is  beaten  into  food.   When 
beaten  egg-white  is  added  to  a  mixture,  air-leavening  is  the 
method  of  raising  or  making  that  food  light.    This  is  not 
equally  applicable  to  all  types  of  flour-mixtures. 

Through  experience  with  such  mixtures  and  foods  in  gen- 
eral it  was  observed  that  foods  allowed  to  stand  changed,  but 
not  always  in  the  same  way.  Sometimes  the  change  improved 
the  food,  sometimes  it  left  it  unfit  for  use.  By  studying  these 
changes  it  was  discovered  that  the  atmosphere  seemed  to 
contain  something  invisible  that  caused  this,  as  it  did  not 
occur  when  air  was  excluded. 

Among  the  changes  noted  were  rising  and  molding  of  bread, 
souring  of  milk,  ripening  of  cheese  and  game,  decomposing 
of  meat.  It  was  further  noted  that  some  of  these  changes  in 
food-substances  were  accompanied  by  gases  being  given  off. 

From  early  times  it  has  been  known  that  a  mixture  of  flour 
and  water  when  it  stood  in  a  warm  place  would  rise.  The  cause 
of  this  was  finally  found  to  be  the  growth  in  the  mixture  of  / 
yeast  plants  that  entered  it  from  the  air.  In  growing  and  tak- 
ing their  food  for  growth  from  the  mixture  it  was  discovered 
that  they  so  broke  up  some  of  its  constituents  as  to  form  the 
gas  that  expanded  in  the  warm  mixture  and  raised  the  mixture. 

PLANT  LIFE  AND  PLANT  FOODS  29 


YEAST-ACTIVITY 


FERMENTATION 


Wild  yeasts,  as  those  of  the  air  came  to  be  called,  have 
been  studied,  as  have  also  the  other  organisms  found  with 
them,  such  as  bacteria  and  molds.  All  do  not  act  alike  ;  even 
all  yeasts  do  not.  The  yeast  now  used  in  bread-making  was 
found  to  serve  that  purpose  well.  It  has  since  been  sepa- 
rated and  so  used.  It  is  not  secured  entirely  free  from  other 
organisms,  but  when  conditions  favorable  for  its  growth  are 
provided,  the  result  sought  in  bread-rising  is  obtained. 

The  conditions  for  growth  of  the  yeast-plant  are  suitable 
temperature  and  food.    The  yeast-plant  multiplies  by  budding. 

a  b  c 

Yeast-plant  developing  during  the  process  of  fermentation 
a,  b,  c,  d,  successive  stages  of  cell  multiplication.    (After  Green) 

The  temperature  most  favorable  for  this  is  between  70°  and  90°  F. 
At  1 3 1  °  F.  and  at  freezing  temperatures  yeast-action  is  destroyed.  At 
other  temperatures  not  between  70°  and  90°  F.  the  action  may  go  on 
slowly,  but  too  slowly  for  a  favorable  result  in  food.  Retarded  yeast- 
activity  permits  other  changes  to  occur  through  the  development  of  other 
organisms.  These  may  destroy  the  value  of  a  food.  In  bread-rising  the 
temperature  needed  for  yeast-activity  may  be  secured  and  maintained  by 
keeping  the  pan  of  dough  in  a  pan  of  water  comfortable  for  the  hand. 
(A  thermometer  should  be  used  whenever  possible.) 

The  food  of  the  yeast-plant  is  present  in  bread  as  now 
made.  Sugar  enables  yeast  to  act  as  a  leaven.  Some  starch  of 
flour  is  converted  into  sugar  in  the  form  yeast  uses.  As  it 
uses  the  sugar,  the  sugar  is  broken  up.  One  of  the  products 
of  this  actfon  is  carbon  dioxid  gas.  The  formation  and  ex- 
pansion of  this  as  it  is  heated  produce  lightness.  The  process 
of  breaking  up  the  food-substances  of  the  yeast-plant  into  car- 
bon dioxid  gas  and  alcohol  is  called  alcoholic  fermentation. 

30  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


LEAVENS 


PREPARED  YEASTS 


Yeast,  as  it  is  used  in  bread-making,  varies  in  form.  It  may 
be  liquid,  compressed,  or  dry.  The  form  is  not  important,  save 
as  this  affects  the  purity  or  keeping  quahty  of  the  yeast.  Though 
the  gas  produced  by  the  development  of  yeast  is  not  the  only 
significant  effect  of  its  growth,  it  is  this  that  makes  yeast  a  rising- 
agent  and  valuable  for  leavening  mixtures.  Yeast  must  there- 
fore be  so  prepared  and  kept  as  to  prevent  the  formation  and 
escape  of  this  gas  before  the  yeast  is  introduced  into  the  mix- 
ture to  be  raised  by  it.  Bread  made  light  by  forcing  carbon 
dioxid  gas  directly  into  it  lacks  the  flavor  of  yeast-bread. 


Yeast  cells  greatly  magnified  Hop 

(After  Conn  and  Buddington) 

Yeast  is  a  natural  leaven.    It  leaves  practically  no  residue. 

When  yeast  is  home-made,  it  is  prepared  by  cooking  pota- 
toes in  water  in  which  a  few  hops  have  been  boiled.  Some 
sugar  and  flour  are  added,  and  the  mixture  fermented  by  a 
little  yeast  called  the  starter.  Home-made  yeast  may  contain 
many  bacteria  and  wild  yeasts  that  do  not  produce  essentially 
advantageous  changes  in  food. 

The  yeast  of  commerce  is  a  by-product  of  distilleries  or 
breweries.  The  usual  form  is  that  of  compressed  yeast.  This 
is  wrapped  in  tin  foil  and  should  be  kept  in  a  cool  place.  // 
decomposes  easily  and  produces  therefore  unfavorable  changes 
when  not  fresh.  Dry  yeast  is  the  same  yeast-product  mixed 
with  starch  or  meal  and  dried.  Yeast  when  dried  thus  is 
made  inactive  for  a  while.  It  therefore  acts  less  promptly  in 
a  mixture  than  does  compressed  yeast  but  keeps  indefinitely. 

PLANT  LIFE  AND  PLANT  FOODS  31 


BAKING-POWDER 


ARTIFICIAL  LEAVENS 


Baking-powders  are  artificial  leavens.  What  nature  does 
through  the  growth  of  yeast,  humankind  seek  to  bring  about 
through  baking-powders.  The  endeavor  is  to  produce  the  ris- 
ing effect  of  yeast  by  incorporating  in  mixtures  to  be  raised 
such  substances  as  will  give  off  carbon  dioxid  gas  when  they 
are  united.  Baking-powders  as  commercially  -produced  and 
practically  used  are  the  result  of  this  effort. 

They  all  contain  carbon  dioxid  in  some  combination.  Soda 
(sodium  bicarbonate)  and  an  acid  when  brought  together  give 
off  carbon  dioxid.  This  is  the  general  combination  of  sub- 
stances used  in  baking-powders.  To  prevent  the  escape  of 
the  carbon  dioxid  until  it  is  needed,  the  soda  is  mixed  with 
starch.  The  acid  substance  cannot  then  unite  chemically  with 
the  soda  at  once  when  these  are  brought  together. 

The  starch  so  used  is  called  a  filler.  While  dry  the  action 
between  the  soda  and  acid  is  prevented  ;  hence  the  necessity 
of  keeping  baking-powder  in  closed  tin  cans  or  glass  jars. 
When  the  baking-powder  is  mixed  with  a  flour-mixture  it  is 
then  moistened.  This  causes  the  soda  and  acid  to  combine 
chemically  and  give  off  the  gas  that  expands  and  raises  the 
mixture,  making  it  porous  and  light,  thereby  digestible. 

The  time  a  baking-powder  takes  to  form  the  gas  that  raises 
mixtures  depends  upon  the  proportions  of  its  ingredients.  If 
the  proportion  of  the  ''  filler"  is  large  as  compared  with  that  of 
the  soda-acid  combination,  then  the  powder  acts  slowly.  Other- 
wise it  is  a  quick  rising-agent.  The  commercial  value  of  a 
baking-powder  is  based  upon  its  rising  quality.  The  one  with 
the  most  filler  will  cost  least.  The  starch  filler  varies  from  l  to 
^  the  weight  of  baking-powders  as  purchased. 

In  principle  of  action  all  baking-powders  are  alike,  that  is, 
they  produce  the  necessary  gas. 

32  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


BAKING-POWDERS 


DIFFERENT  RESIDUES 


Baking-powders  differ  in  the  substances  they  leave  in  the 
leavened  mixture.  The  hygienic  desirability  of  a  baking- 
powder  is  determined  by  the  wholesomeness  of  this  residue. 
None  of  these  residues  is  necessary  to  the  mixture  and  all  may 
be  more  or  less  disturbing  to  digestion.  Soda  and  starch  are 
common  to  all  baking-powders.  These  are  practically  harm- 
less. The  acid  element  varies.  It  is  through  this  that  harm 
may  come.    There  are  three  usual  types  of  baking-powders. 

Cream-of-tartar  baking-powders  contain  cream  of  tartar  and 
some  tartaric  acid.  These  act  most  quickly  and  usually  cost 
most.  Cream  of  tartar  is  left  from  grape-juice  as  wine  is  made. 
It  leaves  as  a  residue  the  active  element  of  Seidlitz  powders. 
This  is  laxative  in  its  action.  But  so  little  is  taken  into  the 
body  in  baking-powder  foods  that  this  effect  is  not  appreciable. 

Phosphate  baking-powders  contain  phosphoric  acid  in  the  W 
form  of  phosphates.  After  the  action  of  the  baking-powder 
some  of  this  substance  is  left  in  the  food.  It  is  not,  as  is 
sometimes  seen  stated,  in  the  same  form  as  the  phosphates 
that  are  lost  from  grains  in  grinding  nor  is  it  of  the  same 
use  in  the  body  as  these  would  be.  This  residue  is  pres- 
ent in  these  baking-powders  in  much  larger  quantity  than  the 
phosphates  of  the  grains.  It  acts  as  a  laxative.  Phosphate 
baking-powders  do  not  keep  well.  They  may  contain  on  this 
account  an  excess  of  starch  as  a  filler. 

Ahem  baking-powders  contain  sulphuric  acid  in  alkali  sul-/^ 
phates.  These  are  considered  harmful  by  physiological  scien- 
tists.  They  hinder  digestion  by  acting  as  an  astringent,  as  does 
the  substance  commonly  known  as  alum.    Alum  touched  to 
the  tongue  puckers  the  mouth.   Alum  baking-powder  residue        ^ 
taken  in  food  acts  similarly  upon  the  digestive  tract. 

Seek  lightness  of  leavened  mixture  with  freedom  from  insoluble  residue. 

PLANT  LIFE  AND  PLANT  FOODS  33 


HOME-MADE  LEAVENS 


LEAVENING  MIXTURES 


As  commercial  baking-powders  are  required  by  law  to  state 
their  ingredients  on  their  labels,  no  one  need  therefore  use  a 
rising-agent  containing  deleterious  or  doubtful  residue.  Through 
only  ignorance,  negligence  or  indifference  will  this  happen. 

It  is  possible  and  economical  to  make  excellent  baking- 
-powder at  home,  as  follows  : 

Soda  {baking),  2  oz.,  mixed  with  starch,  i-ii  oz.  (or  i^-2i).   Shake  well. 
Cream  of  tartar,  4  oz.  (from  reliable  druggist),  added,  and  all  well-shaken. 

The  smaller  amount  of  starch  makes  a  more  quickly  active  powder ;  the 
larger  a  better-keeping  powder.  Both  need  to  be  made  of  perfectly  dry 
ingredients  and  to  be  kept  dry  in  covered  glass  or  tin.    Why  ? 

In  home  cooking  artificial  leavens  may  be  varied  according 
to  the  effect  of  ingredients  upon  leavens  themselves.  With 
non-acid  ingredients  an  acid-element  is  essential  in  baking- 
powder  so  that  chemical  action  will  liberate  the  gas  that  does 
the  leavening  of  the  mass.  If  any  ingredients  are  themselves 
acid,  as  are  sour  milk  and  molasses,  soda  alone  serves.  The 
acid  present  then  frees  the  gas  from  the  soda.  This  method 
is  a  home  practice  that  is  sometimes  used  as  a  convenience 
or  economy.  It  may  improve  a  food ;  for  were  a  baking- 
powder  used  in  acid  foods  the  action  would  be  too  quick  and 
a  residue  unnecessarily  introduced. 

The  time  and  way  of  mixing  in  rising-agents  determines 
their  effectiveness.  They  need  to  be  active  throughout  a  mix- 
ture and  not  to  become  active  before  the  mixture  is  formed. 
Hence  the  usual  sifting  of  these  with  flour  and  no  moistening 
of  them  until  action  is  advisable.  Beaten  eggs  used  to  catch 
and  retain  air  to  leaven  mixtures  are  folded  in  with  care  at  the 
end  of  the  mixing-process,  that  they  may  be  effective  in  this. 

Interest  in  food-quality  grows  with  knowledge  about  it  and 
experience  in  endeavoring  to  secure  a  pure  food-supply. 

34  FOOD—  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


Copyright,  B.  I„  Sinifley  By  courtesy  of  Keystone  View  Co. 

A  NORWEGIAN  WOMAN  BAKING  FLAT  BREAD  OUT-OF-DOORS 

This  bread  is  made  of  coarse  barley-meal  and  water,  then  rolled  thin  and  baked  on 

a  flat  stone  heated  by  a  fagot-fire  underneath.    When  baked  this  bread  is  kept  in  a 

dry  place  for  winter  use.    It  is  said  to  be  clean  and  palatable. 


FLOUR  IN  FOODS 


HOME-USED  FLOURS 


Bread-flour  is  creamy  rather  than  pure  white,  a  Httle  gritty, 
and  coheres  sHghtly  when  a  mass  is  pressed  together.  The 
test  of  a  bread-flour  is  the  quality  of  bread  it  will  produce 
when  bread  is  skillfully  made.  This  is  the  method  used  in 
judging  flour  as  flour  is  manufactured.  Pastry-flour  is  whiter 
and  smoother  than  bread-flour.  All  the  so-called  patent  flours 
are  made  of  the  middlings,  so  contain  a  little  less  protein  and 
mineral  matter  and  more  starch  than  the  usual  bread-flour. 
Three  times  as  much  of  such  flour  is  produced  as  of  bread- 
flour.  Whole  or  entire-wheat  flour  results  from  grinding  the 
entire  wheat-kernel.  Graham  flour  is  white  flour  in  which 
some  fine-ground  bran  has  been  mixed. 

Flour  is  sometimes  bleached  to  improve  its  appearance. 
This  is  done  with  the  more  inferior  qualities  to  remove  their 
yellowish  color.  This  practice  is  undesirable,  as  all  food  should 
reveal  its  quality  by  its  appearance  and  be  sold  for  what  it  is. 
It  should  also  be  free  from  all  substances  not  part  of  itself. 
The  mixing  of  different  kinds  of  grains,  when  practiced,  should 
be  disclosed  instead  of  concealed.  Thus  only  can  one  know 
what  is  purchased  and  how  it  will  serve  as  food  when  eaten,  or 
select  food  that  will  bring  humanity  the  nourishment  needed. 

Bread  needs  to  be  made  from  reliable  flour.  Its  general  use 
in  the  diet  is  due  to  the  fact  it  contains  all  food-constituents 
in  significant  quantity  except  fat.  Butter  used  with  it  adds  this. 
As  all  peoples  now  eat  bread,  so  have  all  peoples  in  all  ages.  The 
breads  eaten  have  differed  and  do  differ.  Over  fifty  kinds  of 
bread  are  recorded  as  eaten  in  ancient  times.  To-day  the  kinds 
are  numerous  and  the  differences  wide  between  white  breads 
and  the  German  black  bread,  the  Scotch  oat  cake,  the  Swedish 
flat  rye  bread  (baked  only  every  six  months)  and  the  Jewish  un- 
leavened bread  that  resembles  a  delicate,  hard  water  cracker. 

PLANT  LIFE  AND  PLANT  FOODS  35 


DIFFERENT  BREADS  W^  FLOUR-MIXTURES 

Yeast  breads  made  with  a  variety  of  flours  serve  as  the 
constant  bread  of  humanity.  Bread  dough,  besides  being  it- 
self made  in  many  ways,  is  used  as  a  basis  for  other  foods,  as 
doughnuts.  These  all  vary  somewhat.  Some  add  fat  that  bread 
lacks.    Others  include  more  sugar,  also  fruit  and  nuts. 

Such  changes  in  bread  usually  increase  its  heat-energy,  but 
may  decrease  somewhat  its  digestibility.  They  produce  variety 
in  the  diet  and  are  used  for  this  purpose  where  the  supply  of 
fresh  foods  is  limited  and  living  is  largely  out-of-doors.  These 
conditions  in  the  early  days  of  New  England  effected  many 
such  modifications  in  flour-foods  not  now  essentially  needed. 

Starch,  the  principal  food-ingredient  in  bread,  because 
gradually  digested,  makes  bread  a  food  that  so  lasts  as  to 
prevent  over-frequent  need  for  food.  Foods  that  increase  fat 
and  sugar  give  in  these  more  rapidly  available  energy  than 
starch  can.  Starch  must  be  made  into  a  kind  of  sugar  before 
it  can  be  digested.  In  bread-baking  the  starch  in  the  crust 
is  changed  to  dextrin  (a  soluble  sugar).  Hence  the  advice  to 
give  children  crusty  bread.  Adults  by  thorough  mastication 
of  food  bring  it  more  fully  within  the  activity  of  the  digestive 
juices  than  little  children  can.  Adults  can  therefore  use  what 
children  should  not  even  try  to  digest. 

Baking-powder  breads  vary  as  do  yeast  breads.  They  may 
be  plain  or  variously  enriched.  They  are  usually  served  hot, 
so  require  every  care  to  make  them  digestible.  They  include 
muffins,  breakfast  and  tea  breads  of  all  kinds,  such  as  corn- 
bread,  cereal  and  sweetened  muffins,  and  biscuit. 

Many  such  foods  introduce  a  number  of  animal  food  ele- 
ments in  milk,  butter,  eggs,  so  are  not  as  distinctly  vegetable 
foods  as  bread  itself  may  be.  This  does  not  decrease  their 
value  as  foods,  but  modifies  their  use. 

36  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


COMPOSITION  — USE 


BREAD-SUBSTITUTES 


The  range  of  bread-substitutes  is  as  great  as  the  varieties 
of  bread.  These  are  not  only  many  but  come  from  every- 
where and  even  from  many  ages  of  the  Hving  of  humanity. 
They  are  nevertheless  of  only  three  general  types  and  can  all 
be  so  grouped.  These  are  : 
Simpler,  thinner  flour-foods,  as  buckwheat  cakes  and  fritters  of  all  types, 

batter  cakes  and  batter-covered  foods. 
Sweetened  flour-mixtures  more  delicate  than  bread  and  usually  very  pal- 
atable, such  as  all  cakes,  cookies,  and  many  puddings. 
Enriched flour-7nixtures  more  crisp  than  bread,  due  to  increased  fat  (but- 
ter or  lard).  Often  these  are  more  appetizing  than  digestible.  Such 
are  pastries  and  even  crackers  (except  cereal  crackers  that  are  simply 
hard-baked  cereal-flour-and-water-  or  milk-mixtures). 

Note  in  the  table  below  the  differences  in  crackers,  cake, 
and  breads.   Which  has  most  fat }  least  water  t  most  protein, 
ash,  carbohydrates  1 
Composition  of  Bread,  Cake,  Crackers 


Water 

Protein 

%IN 

Carbohydrates 

Fat 

Ash 

43.6 

5-4 

'  Brown 

47.1 

1.8 

2.1 

38.4 

97 

Whole  wheat 

497 

•9 

1-3 

35-7 

8.9 

Bread i 

Graham 

52.1 

1.8 

1-5 

35-7 

9- 

Rye 

53-2 

.6 

1-5 

35-3 

9.2 

L  White 

53-1 

1-3 

I.I 

19.9 

6.3 

Cake 

63-3 

9- 

1-5 

6.8 

97 

r  Cream 

69.7 

12. 

17 

4.8 

II-3 

Crackers^  Oyster 

70.5 

10.5 

2.9 

5-9 

9.8 

I  Soda 

73-1 

9.1 

2.1 

(From  Food  Btdletin  No.  142,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture)  (Rearranged) 

Since  these  foods  are  all  largely  flour,  they  take  the  place 
of  one  another  in  the  diet ;  that  is,  no  two  of  these  are  eaten 
together.  When  two  are  eaten  at  the  same  meal,  less  of  each 
should  be  than  when  alone.  Cake  or  pie  as  dessert  makes  less 
bread  with  such  a  meal  desirable.  Cake  and  pie  usually  can- 
not, however,  directly  take  the  place  of  bread. 


PLANT  LIFE  AND  PLANT  FOODS 


37 


FRUITS 


IN  NATURE 


The  f  ruitf  ulness  of  the  earth  stirs  every  one  that  at  all  realizes 
it  to  a  sense  of  wonder.  Each  fruit  of  plant  or  tree,  when  known 
for  what  it  is,  seems  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  marvels  that  so 
abound  among  living  things.  Vegetation  has  for  every  season 
characteristic  charm.  Springtime  brings  anew  evidences  of 
growth;  summer  matures;  autumn  reaps;  and  winter  keeps  alive 
for  nature's  use  what  is  needed  to  renew  the  life  of  vegetation 
and  sustain  that  of  animals  and  humanity.  Fruits  mean  more  in 
the  life  of  vegetation  than  simply  supplying  refreshment  to 
humanity.  But  as  human  foods,  it  is  refreshment  that  fruits 
uniquely  bring.  Some  are  also  distinctly  nourishing,  as  bananas. 

Fruits  and  vegetables  are  similar  in  composition,  but  differ 
in  some  very  significant  respects.  Both  contain  much  water, 
mineral  matter,  some  cellulose,  and  protein.  (Though  most 
fruits  have  little  more  than  i  %  of  protein,  this  is  not  an  in- 
significant proportion  of  their  solids  ;  often  it  is  2%-io%. 

Average  Composition  of  Fresh  Fruits 


As  EATEN 

Water 

Sweet  Fruits 

Sugar 

Acid 

Mine- 
ral 

Pro- 

Fat 

Fiber 

Acid  Fruits 

Salts 

tein 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 

35 

75.8 

Bananas 

21.7 

•3 

•5 

1-3 

.6 

I. 

5 

78.4 

Plums 

20.1 

I. 

.5 

I. 

— 

— 

81.9 

Huckleberries 

16.5 

— 

.3 

.6 

.5 

— 

25 

77-4 

Grapes 

14.5 

.6 

.5 

1-3 

1.6 

4-3 

85.3 

Pineapples 

12.2 

7 

•3 

4 

•3 

4 

25 

84.6 

Apples 

II-3 

7 

•3 

.6 

•5 

1.2 

6 

85. 

Peaches 

10.8 

•5  + 

.6 

•5 

•5 

— 

— 

86.3 

Blackberries 

10.9 

.8 

.5 

1-3 

I. 

2-5 

— 

85. 

10. 

1-5 

.6 

I. 

— 

2.9 

Raspberries 

— 

88.9 

8.4 

2-3 

.2 

4 

.6 

1-5 

Cranberries 

6 

90. 

6. 

I.I 

.6 

I. 

.6 

1.4 

Strawberries 

27 

86.9 

57 

1.4 

•5 

.8 

.2 

Oranges 

30 

89.3 

4 

54 

•5 

I. 

7 

I.I 

Lemons 

(Constructed  from  a  variety  of  analyses) 


38 


FOOD —WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


FRESH 


FRUIT  FOOD 


Those  foods  nourish  most  that  have  least  water.  Among 
vegetables  potatoes,  corn,  peas,  have  least  water,  so  more  nu- 
trients, that  is,  substances  that  nourish.  Bananas  have  least 
water  among  fruits,  therefore  give  most  nourishment. 

Fruits,  like  vegetables,  are  of  two  somewhat  distinct  kinds, 
though  this  is  not  readily  seen  except  by  comparison  of  the 
extremes,  as  bananas  and  oranges.  As  starch  decreases  in 
vegetables  (from  potatoes  to  tomatoes),  so  sugar  does  in  fruits. 
Fruits  are  sometimes  distinguished  as  ''food"  and  ''flavor" 
fruits  in  recognition  of  this  difference.  But  all  fruits  have  fla- 
vor and  value  besides  furnishing  heat-energy,  which  both  their 
sugar  and  acids  give  as  these  are  broken  up  in  the  body. 

Mineral  salts  in  fruits,  such  as  potassium,  are  especially  im- 
portant to  the  body.  They  are  in  a  form  in  which  the  body 
can  use  them.  It  is  only  as  these  are  associated  with  organic 
matter,  as  they  are  in  fruits  through  plant-growth,  that  the 
body  can  assimilate  them.  The  flavor  in  fruit  is  produced  by 
their  complex  oils,  with  their  organic  acids,  sugar  and  water. 
Organic  acids  in  fruits,  though  much  alike,  are  not  the  same. 
Apples  contain  malic  acid,  as  do  tomatoes  ;  oranges  and  lem- 
ons, citric  ;  grapes,  tartaric.    (Baking  Powders,  p.  33.) 

Degree  of  ripeness  of  fruit  affects  its  value  and  usableness 
as  food,  since  its  composition  changes  as  it  matures.   Unripe 
contain  more  cellulose,  starch,  pectin,  and  acids. 
Composition  of  Apples  as  they  Develop    (Adapted  from  "  Pure  Foods ") 


Solids 

Water 

Per  Cent  in 

Sugar 

Starch 

Malic  Acid 

18.5 

20.2 
19.6 
19.7 

81.5 
80. 
80.4 
80.3 

Very  green 
Green 
Ripe 
Overripe 

Cane      Invert 

1.6      6.4 
4.       6.5 

6.8        7.7 
5-3        8.8 

4.1 

3-7 
.2  — 

I.I  + 

.6  + 

•5- 

(These  specific  analyses  differ  from  averaged  analyses,  p.  38) 

FLANT  LIFE  AND  PLANT  FOODS 


39 


FRUIT  CULTIVATION 


AIMS 


Science  experimentation  in  modifying  living  things  has  in  no 
realm  of  life  had  more  effect  upon  products  than  in  fruit-bearing 
vegetation.  Cultivation  is  always  an  effort  to  improve  or  re- 
fine a  product  found  wild,  or  by  combination  of  two  to  produce 
a  third  for  variety  or  to  secure  together  only  the  desirable 
qualities  of  each.  Grafting  and  cross-fertilizing  are  used  to  do 
this.  In  cultivation  two  efforts  are  made,  namely,  to  decrease 
the  cellulose  in  fruits  and  to  improve  flavor. 
^.  Some  foods  are  palatable  both  wild  and  cultivated.  This  is 
true  of  strawberries,  though  wild  differ  from  cultivated.  Moun- 
tain cranberries  are  more  palatable  and  delicate  than  those  of 
the  low-lands  bog-cultivated.  But  by  cultivation  only  are  some 
foods  brought  into  form  to  render  them  acceptable  human 
foods.  Apples  untended  return  to  a  wild  state  that  is  a  stage 
in  their  development  below  the  level  where  they  became  a  de- 
sirable addition  to  the  diet  of  humanity. 

Seedless  foods  are  the  opposite  extreme  of  wild.  The  latter 
are  self-grown  and  bear  the  seeds  that  reproduce.  Human- 
grown  fruits  are  cultivated  for  human  food.  They  are  con- 
trolled in  their  growth,  so  far  as  control  can  be  exercised,  for 
their  improvement  as  human  foods.  A  fruit  without  seeds  has 
in  it  what  otherwise  would  have  gone  into  making  seeds  or  it  is 
in  the  more  tender,  less  mature  stage  before  seeds  form.  Thus 
cultivated  seedless  fruits  are  usually  more  delicate  and  may  be 
more  nutritious  too.  Sometimes,  however,  the  loss  of  natural- 
ness in  such  forced  growth  is  a  loss  of  vital  quality.  But  usually 
the  fruit  is  preferable  as  food,  as  are  seedless  oranges. 

Cultivation  of  fruit  has  greatly  increased  of  late  years,  due 
to  the  greater  importance  attached  to  it  as  food  and  to  devel- 
opment of  regions  especially  suited  by  soil  and  climate  to  its 
growth,  combined  with  extension  of  transportation  facilities. 

40  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


SEASONS 


FRUIT-PRESERVATION 


Nature's  spring  supply  of  fresh  food  begins  with  early  green 
vegetables,  as  lettuce  and  radishes.  These  are  followed  by 
young  starchy  vegetables,  as  beans,  and  later  by  such  as  mature 
late,  both  starchy  and  green,  as  potatoes  and  tomatoes.  The 
season  for  fruits  opens  with  early  berries  and  ends  with  late 
apples.  Using  fresh  foods  as  they  become  abundant  secures 
the  best  food-supply,  also  the  most  economical. 

Some  such  foods  are  necessary  at  other  seasons.  This  need 
is  met  by  storing  or  preserving  them  for  out-of-season  use  or 
by  transporting  them  from  other  climates  where  they  grow  at 
other  seasons.  Foods  that  contain  starch  keep  well  because 
starch  is  stable,  that  is,  not  easily  changed.  It  is  because  starch 
does  not  readily  change  that  it  is  indigestible  raw.  Foods  to 
be  eaten  raw  must  contain  little  or  no  starch ;  lacking  this 
stable  substance,  they  keep  less  well. 

Green  fruits  contain  much  starch.  The  plant  as  fruit  ma- 
tures has  the  power  to  change  starch  to  sugar.  As  fruit  decays 
or  fruit-juice  ferments,  sugar  is  changed  further  and  alcohol 
is  formed.  This  is  the  process  of  wine-production  from  grapes 
that  are  themselves  i-  to  i  sugar.  Cider  is  thus  derived  from 
apples  that  are  -^-^  to  |  sugar. 

To  have  fruits  fresh  for  out-of-season  use  they  must  be  trans- 
ported or  stored.  Bacteria  usually  are  the  foes  of  food.  Low 
temperature  delays  or  destroys  bacterial  growth.  Temperature 
lowered  sufficiently  to  da  this,  but  not  so  low  as  to  freeze  the 
fruit,  preserves  fruit  palatably  during  transportation  or  for  six 
months  of  storage  for  reserved  use.  It  is  thus  fresh  fruit  is  made 
available  throughout  the  year,  but  at  high  cost  out-of-season. 

Fruits  are  dried  and  preserved  by  cooking  for  deferred  use. 
Drying  deprives  fruit  of  moisture  until  desired  for  use.  Re- 
turning water  to  it  revives  it  and  its  flavor  somewhat. 

PLANT  LIFE  AND  PLANT  FOODS  41 


FRUIT  PREPARATIONS 


PROCESSES 


Fruits  stored  are  kept  as  nearly  as  possible  in  a  fresh  state. 
Dried  fruits  have  lost  water  and  may  contain  chemicals  used 
to  prevent  development  of  mold ;  these  act  also  as  a  bleach. 
Desiccated  fruits  have  water  withdrawn  from  them  by  expo- 
sure to  moisture-free  heated  air.  The  rapidity  of  such  drying 
averts  the  possibility  of  mold  or  bacteria  growing. 

Canned  fruits  are  cooked.  Only  such  fruits  as  are  palatable 
cooked  should  be  canned.  Bacteria  must  be  kept  out  after 
cooking.  Sealing,  with  air  excluded,  is  the  household  practice. 
In  the  laboratory  it  has  been  found  bacteria  do  not  pass 
through  cotton.  Where  canned  food  is  not  to  be  shipped  it 
can  safely  be  stopped  with  cotton.  Jams  and  jellies  are 
covered  with  paraffin  for  the  same  purpose. 

Jams  and  jellies  are  fruit-juices  concentrated  by  boiling 
fruit  with  sugar.  Jams  contain  most  of  the  fruit.  Jellies  have 
the  cellulose  (woody  fiber),  skins,  and  seeds  strained  out.  Jel- 
lies are  congealed,  strained  fruit-juices  that  have  combined 
with  the  sugar  added  in  boiling.  The  pectin  (i%)  and  acid 
(i%)  make  this  jellying  of  fruit-juices  possible.  Tart  fruits 
usually  contain  pectin  and  acid  in  the  proportions  needed  to 
cause  jellying  when  the  amount  of  sugar  required  by  each  fruit 
is  added.  Sweet  fruits  may  lack  the  acid  necessary.  This 
lack  may  be  overcome  by  using  the  fruit  somewhat  green,  by 
adding  the  acid  from  grapes  (tartaric,  used  in  baking-powder), 
or  by  adding  some  of  an  acid  fruit.  The  last  is  the  preferable 
method. 

Specific  preserving  processes  are  special  cookery  problems, 
but  the  facts  stated  above  give  the  principles  that  direct  such 
food-preparation  and  through  which  it  is  understood.  Com- 
merce markets  some  jams  and  jellies  of  somewhat  artificial 
composition.    (See  p.  44.) 

42  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


JAMS  —  JELLIES 


FRUIT  IN  DIET 


Dried  fruits  lose  freshness,  but  in  losing  water  increase  the 
proportion  of  their  nutrients  (nourishing  substances).  Grapes 
and  raisins  differ  thus,  as  do  also  plums  and  prunes.  Such 
fruits  are  concentrated  foods,  because  in  small  bulk  there  is  a 
high  percentage  of  nourishment.  (See  table  below.)  Such 
dried  fruits  are  wholesome,  but  are  not  substitutes  for  fresh 
fruits.  They  serve  the  body  differently.  They  are  principally 
heat-energy-giving.  They  combine  appetizingly  with  grain 
foods,  increasing  their  heat-power  and  palatability. 


Composition  of  Fresh  Fruits  (F),  Jams  (7^),  and  Jellies 

(/.) 

Water 

%IN 

Sugar 

Acid 

Protein 

Ash 

^     A   A 

^      /i     A 

^    A   A 

^  A  A 

^  /1-/2 

85.4  36.8  40.8 

Apple 

1 1.3  54.6  53.8 

•7     -3     -3 

.6  .2  .2 

.3     .2     .2 

5-             36.7 

Crab-apple 

58.6 

.2 

I 

.1 

86.3  43.6  40.4 

Blackberry 

10.9  47.8  57.4 

.8     .9    .5 

1-3  -7 

2 

•5  -5  -3 

80.1  44.4  36.3 

Grape 

16.5  44.8  62.8 

.6     .7    .5 

1-3  -5 

2 

•5  -7   .5 

81.9           37. 

Huckleberry 

16.5           57. 

•3 

.6 

I 

•3        -3 

86              31.4 

Orange 

57           65.5 

1.4           .2 

4 

•3 

88      34.4  30. 

Peach 

10.8  59.6  65.3 

■6     .5     -3 

•7 

2 

.7        .2 

84.4  38.5  30.9 

Pear 

1 1.4  46.9  65. 

•3 

2 

4  .3   -3 

85.2  26.1   19.7 

Pineapple 

12.2  60.5  78.8 

•8     -3     -3 

•5   -3 

4 

4  .3   4 

78.4  49.6  54.4 

Plum 

13.3  38.     41.9 

I.          I.         I.I 

4  .5 

4 

•5  -5  -7 

33-4 

Mixed  fruit 

634 

4 

I 

(Under  .05  is  dropped ;  over  .05  is  considered  .1)     Constructed  from  Olsen's  "  Pure  Foods  '* 
Dried  Fruits  Composition         (Arranged  from  Norton's  "  Food  and  Dietetics  ") 


Refuse 

Water 

%IN 

Carbohydrates 

Protein 

Fat 

Ash 

10 

15-4 

Dates 

78.4     ^ 

2.1 

2.8 

1-3 

10 

14.6 

Raisins 

76. 

2.6 

3-3 

34 

17.2 

Currants 

74.2 

2.4 

1-7 

4.5 

18.8 

Figs 

74.2 

4.3 

•3 

2.4 

15 

22.3 

Prunes 

73-3 

2.1 

2.3 

28.1 

Apples 

66.1 

1.6 

2.2 

2.1 

29.4 

Apricots 

62.5 

4.7 

I. 

2.4 

Food  facts  concerning  composition  and  digestibility  of  foods  show  their 
nutritive  value,  therefore,  in  how  far  they  are  equivalents  of  one  another. 


PLANT  LIFE  AND  PLANT  FOODS 


43 


FRUITS  AS  FOODS 


DIGESTIBILITY 


Food  scientists  have  found  some  jellies  and  jams  made 
with  a  common  fruit-juice  (apple)  labeled  differently,  though 
varied  only  by  different  flavors,  natural  or  artificial ;  and 
others  of  gelatin  similarly  flavored  and  sweetened  with  glu- 
cose instead  of  sugar ;  and  even  some  entirely  alike  also 
labeled  differently. 

Preserving  fruit  adds  sugar,  usually  pound  for  pound.  This 
makes  such  foods  highly  heat-energy-giving,  so  cold-weather 
foods,  while  fresh  fruit  is  refreshing  food  of  value  in  summer. 
Living  quality  and  freshness  of  food  cannot  be  overvalued. 

Starch  changes  to  sugar  as  fruit  ripens,  and  acid  lessens. 
(See  p.  39.)  Cooking  unripe  fruit  changes  starch  thus,  too, 
so  makes  it  digestible  as  it  is  not  when  raw. 

Vegetables  develop  starch  as  they  mature ;  fruits,  sugar. 
Fruits  contain  organic  acids  (1-50%  of  their  solids).  Fruits 
have  also  very  complex  oils  and  aromatic  substances  in  small 
quantities  which  give  them  their  characteristic  flavors.  Fruits 
also  contain  some  gums  (pectin  or  pectose),  to  the  presence  of 
which  is  due  the  congealing  of  fruit-juices  when  boiled  with 
sugar.    Pectin  is  more  abundant  in  unripe  than  in  ripe  fruit. 


Digestibility  of  Fruits 


(After  Dr.  Gilman  Thompson) 


Easily  digestible 
Digestible 
Less  digestible 
Indigestible 


Apples  (baked),  prunes  (stewed),  grapes,  oranges, 
lemons,  banana  meal 

Apples  (cooked),  peaches  (ripe),  figs,  grapes,  oranges, 
lemons,  strawberries,  raspberries 

Apples  (raw),  prunes,  pears,  apricots,  bananas,  cur- 
rants (fresh),  melons 

Currants  (dried),  citron 


44 


FOOD  — WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


FUNCTIONS 


FRUITS  AS  FOODS 


Fresh  fruits  promote  body  well-being  principally.  Fruits 
are  heat-energy-giving  mainly  according  to  the  sugar  natural 
in  them  or  added  to  them.  The  acids  and  pectin  in  foods 
add  some  heat-energy.  Fruits  differ  most  in  sugar  and  water 
present.  Dried  and  preserved  fruits  are  less  wholesome  than 
fresh,  ripe  fruit. 

The  slight  variation  in  the  quantities  of  the  other  constitu- 
ents little  reveals  the  many  individual  distinctions  among 
fruits.  Though  these  small-amount  constituents  are  the  ones 
that  distinguish  fruits  from  other  foods  and  act  much  the 
same  in  all  fruits,  they  are  not  all  equally  favorable  for  all 
individuals.  Oranges,  apples,  strawberries  may  signally  fail  to 
agree  with  individuals.  No  class  of  foods  shows  this  indi- 
vidual difference  more  markedly  than  fruits.  Change  in  food- 
combination  may  make  an  unacceptable  food  digest.  Change 
of  season  or  climate  may.  But  if  a  food  persistently  does  not, 
it  should  be  avoided.  What  does  not  digest  does  not  nourish, 
and  becomes  a  harmful  agency  in  the  working  of  the  body. 

Ripe  fruits,  fresh  and  well  washed  as  eaten,  are  free  from 
the  dangers  of  unripe,  dust-laden,  or  decaying  fruit.  Raw 
starch,  excess  of  acids,  and  cellulose  make  unripe  fruit  unsafe 
food.  Fruits  eaten  between  meals  and  at  the  beginning  (when 
not  exceedingly  acid)  are  laxative,  so  aid  the  body  to  keep  free 
from  waste  products  ;  as  do  also  green  vegetables. 

Laxative  fruits  are  apples,  dates,  figs,  prunes,  peaches  (ripe),  berries, 
orange-  and  grape-juice.  (Berries  are  inadvisable  for  young  children. 
All  fruits  for  children  should  be  skinned  and  seeded.) 

Uncooked  fruits  are  somewhat  more  laxative  than  cooked. 


PLANT  LIFE  AND  PLANT  FOODS  45 


NUTS  AS  FOOD 


USE  m  DIET 


Nuts,  like  cereals,  served  as  sustaining  human  food  in  ear- 
lier times.  Later,  nuts  passed  to  use  as  diet-accessories,  that 
is,  food  incidentals  to  substantial  diet.  When  vigorous  out- 
door exercise  was  the  common  practice,  food  could  be  exces- 
sive, and  health  somewhat  maintained.  But  with  less  physical 
activity,  ill-health  is  the  invariable  outcome  of  an  overburdened 
and  overworked  digestive  tract. 

As  science  has  developed  and  engaged  in  a  study  of  human 
nutrition,  what  all  foods  contain  and  do  has  been  investigated. 
Hardly  anywhere  in  the  food  realm  has  more  light  been  shed 
upon  diet-mistakes  than  in  the  use  of  nuts.  Their  very  use 
in  nature  would  make  them  compact,  concentrated  foods,  as 
seeds  must  be  to  nourish  the  living  germ  as  it  sprouts  and 
becomes  a  plant.  Then  only  is  it  equipped  to  take  nutriment 
from  nature's  sources  outside  itself. 

The  wisdom  of  earlier  peoples  is  usually  carried  longest  by 
those  whose  resources  are  so  limited  that  they  cannot  afford 
to  lose  what  experience  has  taught  others  or  to  overlook  what 
has  been  found  good  and  cheap.  Among  such,  nuts  have 
continued  in  use  as  foods  for  nourishment.  From  them  have 
come  palatable  nut-preparations,  as  cooked  chestnuts  (a  starchy 
food  of  delicate  flavor)  and  peanuts,  a  building  and  energy 
food.  Many  food-uses  of  nuts  are  now  practiced,  as  grated 
nuts  on  thin  soups  and  green  salads  to  add  what  these  lack. 

Compare  composition  of  nuts  with  that  of  other  foods  in  table. 

General  Composition  of  Common  Foods 


Water 

%IN 

Fat 

CH 

Ash 

Protein 

2-IO 

40-60 
7-14 
80-90 

Nuts 
Meats 
Grains  (dry) 
Vegetables  and  fruits 

25-60 
15-20 

1-3 
1-2 

15-20 

60 

3-85 

2-5 

I-I5 

2-5 
2-5 

5-20+ 
15-20 
15-20+ 

I-14 

46 


FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


PRODUCED 


NUT  FOODS 


Nuts  nourish.  Though  they  build,  they  are  principally 
energy-giving,  due  to  large  percentage  of  fat.  Fat  gives  over 
twice  as  much  heat-energy  as  the  same  quantity  of  carbohy- 
drates.   Nuts  digest  slowly  ;  they  need  thorough  mastication. 

Study  of  Composition  of  Different  Edible  Nuts 


Ref- 

As EATEN 

use 

Water 

Nuts 
(Shelled) 

Fat 

Carbohy- 
drates 

Ash 

Protein 

Nuts 
(Unshelled) 

% 

% 

•% 

% 

% 

32.6 

1.6 

Peanuts  (roasted) 

49.2 

16.2 

2-5 

30-5 

2. 

Peanut  butter 

46.6 

17.I 

5- 

29-3 

26.4 

9-3 

Peanuts 

42. 

18.7 

2.1 

27.9 

— 

4.2 

Pistachio 

54.5 

15.6 

3-1 

22.6 

64.8 

4.8 

Almonds 

54-9 

17-3 

2. 

21. 

58. 

2.8 

Walnuts 

64.4 

14.8 

1-3 

16.7 

52.1 

3-7 

Filberts 

65.3 

13- 

2.4 

15.6 

497 

2.9 

Pecans 

70.8 

14.3 

17 

10.3 

3.5 

Coconut 
(shredded) 

57.3 

31.6 

1-3 

6.3 

49.6 

2.7 

33-6 

3-5 

2. 

8.6 

Brazil-nuts 

62.2 

1.4 

25-5 

4-3 

.8 

5.8 

Hickory-nuts 

16.1 

31. 

67 

39- 

1-5 

57 

Chestnuts 

86.4 

.6 

8.3 

.5 

•4 

3-8 

Butternuts 

48.8 

7.2 

25.9 

14.3 

•9 

2.9 

Coconuts 

(Adapted  from  a  government  bulletin,  "  Nuts  as  Food  ") 


Nut-cultivation  is  recent  in  the  United  States  {Califor- 
nia and  Texas),  In  1909  there  were  produced  62,328,000 
pounds;  increase  of  57-7%  in  ten  years.  In  1909,  value 
of  crop  was  ^4,448,000;  increase  of  128.1%  in  ten  years. 
Walnuts  (Persian  or  English),  pecans,  almonds,  constituted 
nine  tenths  of  nut  crop.  Walnut  crops  doubled  in  ten  years ; 
pecans  tripled. 

Nut-farms  have  multiplied  rapidly  in  the  United  States. 

(All  data  on  crops  are  from  "Abstract  of  the  Census  —  Agriculture.") 


PLANT  LIFE  AND  PLANT  FOODS 


47 


NUT-  AND  FRUIT-PRODUCTION 


IN  1899-1909 


In  1909  the  United  States  produced  fruits  and  nuts  valued 
at  $222,024,000.  This  was  4%  of  the  total  value  of  all  farm 
crops.  It  was  an  advance  of  66.9%  over  1899,  or  a  gain  of 
$133,049,000. 

Distribution  of  value  of  fruits  and  nuts  in  1909  was 

Small  fruits  (strawberries,  black-,  dew-,  and  rasp- 
berries, gooseberries,  currants,  cranberries)       $29,974,000 

Orchard  fruits  (apples,  peaches,  pears,  plums, 

prunes,  cherries,  apricots,  quinces)  .     .     .        140,867,000 

Grapes  (all  varieties) 22,028,000 

Citrus  fruits  (oranges,  lemons,  grapefruit,  limes, 

tangerines,  mandarins) 22,711,000 

Other  tropical  and  subtropical  fruits,  as  figs, 

olives  (see  below) 1,995,000 

Nuts  (p.  47) 4,448,000 

Acreage  for  small  fruits  in  1 909  was  .  i  %  of  total  improved  farm  acreage. 
Strawberries  (most  important  of  these),  \  of  the  small-fruit  acreage 
and  \  of  value. 

Production  of  orchard  fruits  in  1909:  301,117,277  bearing  trees; 
216,084,000  bushels.  California  and  New  York  led  in  these  prod- 
ucts, that  are  in  value  2.6%  of  all  products.  Apples  (most  impor- 
tant product),  59.1%  of  value  of  orchard  fruits. 

Vine-culture  in  1909  produced  223,702,000  bearing  and  59,929,000  non- 
bearing  vines.  Production  of  grapes  was  2,571,065,000  lb.  Value 
.4%  of  all  farm  crops.  California  produced  |  of  vines  that  yielded 
\  of  grape  crop. 

Citrus-fruit  production  increased  231.1%  between  1899  and  1909  —  from 
7,098,000  boxes  (1899)  to  23,502,000  (1909).  California  raised 
67.8%  ;  Florida,  28.7%.  No  increase  in  production  was  equal  to  this 
of  citrus-fruits.  Grapefruit  led  with  an  increase  of  from  31,000 
(1899)  to  1,189,000  (1909). 

Subtropical  and  other  tropical  fruits  raised  in  California  and  Florida  in 
small  quantities  are  figs,  olives,  pineapples,  bananas,  pears  (avocado), 
guavas,  mangoes,  persimmons  (Japanese),  loquats,  pomegranates, 
dates.   Olive  crop  (raised  in  Cal.  and  Ariz.)  tripled  from  1 899  to  1 909. 

4S  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


IN  UNITED  STATES 

FRUITS  AND  NUTS 


FARM-FRUIT-NUT  CROPS 

VALUE  BY  STATES  — 1909 


COTTON  (COTTONSEED-OIL) 


ACREAGE  BY  STATES  — 1909 


(From  the  Thirteenth  Census  of  the  United  States,  19 lo) 
PLANT  LIFE  AND  PLANT  FOODS 


49 


OILS 


VEGETABLE 


Edible  oils  of  vegetable  origin  come  from  a  number  of 
vegetable  growths :  olives,  corn,  nuts  (as  almond,  peanut), 
seeds  (as  sunflower,  poppy),  and  cotton.  Olive-oil  has  long 
been  used  in  the  countries  of  olive-culture.  The  other  vege- 
table oils  are  of  relatively  recent  development  as'  factors  in  the 
usual  human  diet.  With  the  exception  of  olive-oil  and  such 
fats  as  are  inherent  constituents  of  most  foods,  fats  as  human 
food  have  been  taken  from  animal  foods,  such  as  milk  and  pork. 

Olive-oil  and  most  animal  fats  are  considered  more  gener- 
ally digestible  by  all  persons  than  the  other  oils  that  have 
more  recently  come  into  food-use.  This  is  ascribed  by  many 
to  their  more  wonted  or  agreeable  flavor.  The  other  oils  now 
prepared  as  foods  are  sometimes  by-products  of  processes 
that  serve  humanity  in  other  ways.  Cottonseed-oil  is  a  not- 
able illustration  of  this.  The  more  extended  use  of  nuts  as  a 
substantial  food  has  led  to  a  new  valuation  of  their  fats  and  a 
marked  and  rapid  development  of  their  use  in  made  foods 
also  as  substitutes  for  animal-fat  foods,  as  peanut-butter  for 
butter  made  from  milk.  These  are  not  full  diet-equivalents 
of  the  animal  fats  whose  place  in  the  diet  they  share. 
Fat  in  Human  Foods  {Compare percentages) 


% 

% 

Olive-  and  salad-oils 

loo] 

r  \ 

Fruits 

Butter  and  salt  pork 

8S 

^     supple- 

I 

Vegetables  and  bluefish 

Bacon 

64 

mentary 

li 

Bread 

Chocolate  and  coconut 

SO 

7 

Oatmeal 

Ham 

401 

rn 

Lamb 

Peanuts 

3« 

inter- 
"  changeable  ^ 

T7 

Beefsteak  and  salmon 

Cheese 

33  J 

Us 

Beef  roast 

Olive-oil  is  the  most  highly  valued  of  salad-oils.  It  is  also 
the  most  expensive.  This  leads  to  its  adulteration  or  mixture 
with  other  oils.    It  needs  to  be  kept  pure  for  human  use. 


SO 


FOOD— WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


FOOD  ACIDS 


VINEGAR 


Fruit  juices  have  been  noted  as  refreshing  in  effect.  Fruit 
acids  serve  also  some  cooking  purposes,  as  tartaric  acid  frees 
carbon  dioxid  gas  in  some  baking-powders. 

The  common  acids  in  human  foods  are  : 

Tartaric  acid  in  grapes  (1-5%),  and  in  currants  {S'^7c)'  L-^-^ 

Malic         '*     "  apples  (.9%),  blackberries  (.7%),  strawberries  (1.4%). 
Citric         "     ''  oranges  (1%),  lemons  (7%). 

Vinegar  is  a  manufactured  food-acid.  It  is  made  from 
apples  by  fermentation  that  converts  sugar  into  alcohol,  then 
acetic  acid.  Though  vinegar  is  also  made  from  wine,  mo- 
lasses, glucose,  it  is  in  all  forms  fermented.  When  pure  any 
of  these  vinegars  is  satisfactory,  though  cider  and  wine  are 
preferable.  Spirit  vinegar  made  from  corn  or  barley  malt, 
though  cheaper  to  produce,  is  less  palatable. 

Adulteration  of  vinegar,  even  with  water,  is  easily  accom- 
plished and  often  practiced.  Law  now  requires  that  vinegar  l^ 
have  acetic  acid,  4%  ;  solids  (of  apple),  if  %  ;  ash,  i  %.  Spirit 
vinegar  may  be  colored  and  other  additions  made  to  give  it  the 
appearance  of  cider  vinegar.  No  adulteration  is  ever  advisable, 
and  most  adulteration  is  somewhat  injurious,  even  when  not 
obviously  dangerous.  Its  object  is  always  increase  in  profit. 
It  is  improved  production  that  human  health  requires. 

Clear  vinegar  is  the  result  of  completed  fermentation  and 
protection  from  air.  During  the  process  of  acetic  fermentation 
vinegar  is  cloudy  and  forms  deposits.  ''  Mother  "  of  vinegar  is 
a  fungus  growth  associated  with  the  acetic-acid  ferment.  The 
acidity  resulting  from  completed  fermentation  inhibits  growth 
of  more  ferments. 

Glass,  stone,  or  wood  stopped  receptacles  must  be  used  for 
vinegar,  as  it  dissolves  the  household  metals,  iron,  copper,  tin, 
aluminium. 

PLANT  LIFE  AND  PLANT  FOODS  51 


SPICES 


SOURCE  — USE 


Spices  come  in  the  main  from  tropical  plants.  They  are 
from  roots,  bark,  flowers,  buds,  fruits,  or  seeds  according  to 
the  plant-part  containing  the  aromatic  substance  for  which 
the  spice  is  valued  and  used.  The  flavor  of  spices  is  gener- 
ally due  to  volatile  oils,  as  in  fruits.  They  dissipate  odors 
that  are  usually  agreeable.  Heated  volatile  oils  evaporate. 
/  Constituents  of  spices  are  similar.  They  are  commonly 
^  volatile  oils,  mineral  matter,  tannin,  protein,  starch,  fiber. 
These  are  in  different  proportions  in  different  spices.  The 
mineral  salts  differ  somewhat  and  the  oils  so  differ  as  to  dis- 
tinguish the  spices.  Some  spices  are  very  pungent.  Several 
spices  are  often  mixed  to  secure  a  blend  of  flavors. 

Condiments  are  substances  added  to  food  to  stimulate 
digestion.  This  is  the  function  of  spices.  Mild  stimulation 
of  well-seasoned  and  well-served  food  promotes  wholesome 
digestive  activity.  Excessive  stimulation  destroys  natural 
vitality  and  hinders  normal  functioning  of  body. 

Common  Spices  Diet-Use 

Allspice^  cloves,  cinnamon  (cassia),  ginger,  nutmeg  (mace).    Used  in  flour- 
mixtures,  acid,  oil,  and  sweet  food-dressings. 

Pepper —  black,  white,  red  (cayenne  and  paprika) ;  mustard.   Used  with 
meats,  vegetables,  and  salad-dressings. 
Origin 

Allspice  —  dried  fruit  of  West  In-       Cloves  —  immature  flower  buds  of 
dian  evergreen.  clove  tree. 

Cinnamon  —  inner  bark  of  tropical       Cassia — coarse    outer    bark    and 
tree.  buds.    Chinese  variety  of  cin- 

Ginger — rootstock  of  tropical  herb.  namon. 

Nutmeg — seed  of  tropical  tree.  Mace  —  thickened  cover  of  nutmeg. 

Pepper — dried  berry  of  tropical  shrub  prepared  as  black  and  white. 

Cayenne  —  dried  fruit-pods  of  tropical  and  temperate  herb. 

Paprika  —  mild  Hungarian  variety. 

Mustard —  seed  of  temperate-zone  herb.   Black  and  white  varieties  mixed. 

S2  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


NATURAL  —  ARTIFICIAL 


FLAVORINGS 


Som^_plants  contain  fragrant  substances  that  can  be  sepa- 
rated and  used  to  flavor  food.  These  are  known  as  vegetable 
flavoring  extracts.  Those  commonly  so  used  are  the  essence  of 
vanilla^  almond,  orange,  lemon.  Lemon  and  orange  extracts 
when  pure  are  made  from  the  oil  of  the  fruit-peels.  This  is  dis- 
solved in  alcohol.  In  the  United  States  it  is  required  that  in 
these  extracts  one  twentieth  be  the  fruit-oil  itself.  Almond 
extract  is  oil  of  bitter  almonds  dissolved  in  alcohol. 

Vanilla  is  extracted  from  the  vanilla-bean,  the  fruit  of  a 
tropical  climbing  orchid  that  grows  naturally  in  Central 
America  and  West  Indies  and  is  elsewhere  produced,  as  in 
Java  and  very  favorably  in  Mexico.  The  process  of  preparing 
vanilla  consists  in  drying  the  pods,  during  which  fermentation 
develops  the  flavor.  The  extract  is  made  by  soaking  chopped 
dried  pods  in  alcohol  and  sugar.  Vanillin  (a  crystalline  sub- 
stance) combined  with  some  resin,  gum,  wax,  tannin,  sugar, 
gives  the  flavor  characteristic  of  vanilla. 

Tonka  extract  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  vanilla.  Some- 
times it  is  mixed  with  vanilla.  It  is  from  the  seed  of  a  tropi- 
cal tree.  The  flavoring  matter  (coumarin)  is  less  delicate  than 
that  of  vanilla.  Like  all  substitute  food-substances  it  should 
be  sold  as  itself.  The  Pure  Food  Law  requires  this.  Both 
vanilla  and  tonka  extracts  are  artificially  produced. 

Twenty  samples  of  commercial  vanilla  when  examined 
showed  that  all  except  two  contained  less  than  the  capacity 
of  the  bottle.  All  except  one  contained  less  alcohol  than  the 
amount  (38%)  in  pure  vanilla  extract.  Six  only  contained 
the  amount  of  vanillin  (1-2%)  most  desirable,  which  is  that 
present  in  the  bean  considered  best  (Mexican).  Other  beans 
contain  more.    Seven  contained  tonka  extract. 

The  volatile  nature  of  flavorings  makes  them  pervade  foods. 

PLANT  LIFE  AND  PLANT  FOODS  S3 


CONDIMENTS 


GROWTH  —  CARE 


Children  need,  in  the  main,  to  eat  foods  as  flavored  by  nature. 

Flavorings  are  used  to  increase  palatability  of  foods  that 
are  themselves  without  marked  flavor.  When  volatile  it  is 
essential  so  to  add  them  to  foods  that  they  will  not  be  dissi- 
pated during  cooking. 

Confections  flavor  a  diet  as  flavorings  do  food. 

The  sweet  chocolate  sold  as  a  candy  is  usually  nearly  two 
thirds  sugar.  Adulteration  of  chocolate  is  possible  and  some- 
what practiced.  Cheaper  vegetable  constituents  are  substi- 
tuted ;  even  some  inorganic  substances  are  used.  Both  are 
unfortunate.  The  latter  may  not  be  wholly  safe.  Pure  choco- 
late and  chocolates  of  stated  composition  are  needed  for  all 
uses  of  chocolate. 

In  191 1  the  United  States  imported  ^4,946,200  worth  of 
spices  and  exported  of  these  ;^24S,622  worth  together  with 
^58,989  worth  of  domestic  production.  The  quality  of  spices 
depends  upon  manner  of  growth  and  purity  of  preparation. 
Ground  spices  are  easily  and  not  infrequently  adulterated  with 
pulverized  nut-shells  and  grain-hulls.  Unground,  adulteration 
is  neither  so  simple  nor  usual,  though  still  possible. 

Use  of  vinegar  is  primarily  to  promote  palatability  of  food. 
In  concentration  it  is  slightly  preservative.  This  limits  its  use, 
as  it  should  not  be  consumed  except  in  small  quantity.  Vine- 
gar is  oxidized  in  the  body,  so  yields  energy.  This  is,  how- 
ever, so  insignificant  that  vinegar  is  not  considered  nutritive. 
It  ''  cuts  "  oil,  as  does  lemon-juice  too.  This  so  separates 
oil-particles  as  to  increase  ready  digestion  of  oil.  Olives  are 
hand-picked  and  cold-pressed  to  prevent  bruising  and  decom- 
posing, as  both  cause  deterioration  in  the  oil  produced.  Great 
care  is  necessary  and  exercised  in  its  preparation  to  preserve 
its  delicacy. 

S4  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


DEET-USE 


CONDIMENTS 


Dietetic  objections  to  foods  are  of  several  types.  Glucose 
ferments  more  readily  than  cane-sugar.  It  is  a  cheaper  proT 
uct,  and  the  foods  containing  it  should  be  sold  for  less  than 
those  with  cane-sugar.  The  rapid  availability  of  glucose  for 
use  in  the  body  leads  to  the  danger  of  an  excess  amount  of  it 
being  consumed,  thus  encouraging  fermentations. 

Heating  food  frees  it  from  bacteria  producing  putrefactive 
odors  that  would  render  foods  unpalatable,  but  other  kinds  of 
bacteria  not  killed  in  cooking,  together  with  those  on  uncooked 
foods,  enter  the  intestinal  tract,  so  it  needs  to  be  as  free  as 
possible  of  what  will  feed  them. 

Complete  use  of  food  eaten  depends  upon  the  air  breathed. 
If  more  than  four  parts  of  carbon  dioxid  are  present  in  one 
thousand  parts  of  air,  respiration  is  impeded,  digestion  de- 
stroyed, health  impaired. 

Plants  at  night  do  not  eat  and  do  breathe  ;  in  breathing  they 
add  carbon  dioxid  to  the  air,  so  should  be  removed  from 
sleeping-rooms. 

By  its  beauty  nature  nurtures  humanity  as  well  as  nourishes 
with  its  fruits. 

What  nature  provides  through  the  agency  of  vegetation 
grows  in  significance  as  humanity  grows  in  knowledge  of  its  use. 

The  human  system  detects  the  effect  of  foods  by  its  own 
physiological  reaction  to  them.   This  is  the  test  of  desirability. 

The  caffeine,  theine,  theobromine,  that  give  regular  coffee, 
tea,  and  cocoa  their  stimulating  characteristics,  and  tannin 
(that  is  astringent  and  always  undesirable),  are  present  in 
almost  incalculably  small  quantities  in  beverages  as  prepared. 
(Caffeine  in  coffee  as  a  beverage  is  1.24%  of  i  oz.  in  i  pt. 
of  water,  that  is,  less  than  .008  % .)  But  their  presence  even 
so  may  have  a  physiological  effect  upon  the  body. 

PLANT  LIFE  AND  PLANT  FOODS  55 


BEVERAGES 


ORIGIN  — USE 


The  need  of  the  body  for  water  has  led  to  the  development 
of  beverages.    Some  are  palatable ;  many  stimulate ;  others 
excite  ;  only  a  few  nourish. 
/        Fruit  juices  unfermented,  as  lemonade,  refresh,  as  do  fresh 
Z    fruits.    Coffee  and  tea  stimulate,  giving  to  some  a  sense  of 
vigor,  which  fails,  however,  to  strengthen.   These  only  sustain 
^  without  nourishing.    Alcoholic   drinks  of  all  types   excite. 
They  overwork  and  exhaust  the  nervous  system,  so  that  all 
that  depends  upon  its  wholesome  regulation  is  undermined 
'     and  ultimately  destroyed.    Milk  preparations  and  cocoa  nour- 
ish.   These  alone  should  be  given  to  children. 

Tea  is  old  in  its  use.  Japan  began  to  use  it  in  692  a.d. 
Other  l^nds  used  it  earlier  still.  As  used  it  is  oriental  in  its 
origin,  exhilarating  in  its  effect,  astringent  in  its  action,  social 
in  its  service,  interesting  in  its  growth  and  production  for  use. 

Coffee  too  has  known  long  use,  nor  is  it  confined  to  few  in 
its  customary  consumption.  It  stimulates  individuals  differ- 
ently. For  some  it  annuls  sense  of  fatigue  and  fortifies  for 
work.  For  others  it  destroys  sleep  and  delays  digestion.  Its 
use  is  not  to  be  overencouraged,  but  regulated  it  is  of  value 
under  many  conditions  of  adult  life.  Its  moderate  use  is  not 
commonly  a  food-abuse  ;  its  overuse  is  a  danger  to  health. 
Its  adulteration  and  deterioration  when  ground  are  both 
possible  and  not  unusual. 

Wines  of  all  kinds  are  the  preserved  juices  of  fruits  (com- 
monly grapes)  with  flavor  developed  through  fermentation. 
They  usually  stimulate  to  the  degree  of  excitement  that  undoes 
rather  than  develops  strength  for  controlled  activity.  They 
are  often  associated  with  conviviality  rather  than  self-regulated 
social  intercourse.  Nations  differ  in  their  use  and  in  the 
effect  of  their  native  wines  upon  themselves. 

56  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


PREPARATION  —  COMPOSITION 


TEA  — COFFEE 


Tea  is  steeped,  not  boiled.  Delicacy  of  flavor  depends  upon 
this,  as  does  wholesomeness  too.  Boiling  extracts  the  tannic 
acid  that  causes  the  ill  effects  of  excessive  tea-drinking.  Vari- 
eties of  tea  depend  upon  degree  of  its  maturity  when  picked, 
where  grown,  and  how  treated  in  preparation  for  marketing. 
These  facts  are  considered  in  connection  with  its  growth. 

Coffee  may  be  favorably  made  as  a  decoction  (by  boiling)  or 
as  an  infusion  (without  boiling) .  But  the  coffee-pot,  like  the  tea- 
pot, cannot  stand  ready  for  immediate  service  at  any  time  with- 
out carrying  to  those  that  partake  of  its  contents  what  no  one 
needs  and  any  one  will  suffer  from  drinking.  Such  beverages 
must  be  freshly  made  to  be  palatable  or  safe.  The  growth  of 
coffee  is  part  of  the  industry  of  food-production,  but  coffee  comes 
from  nature.  Nature  is  the  invariable,  inexhaustible  source 
of  supply  for  the  demand  of  humanity  for  physical  sustenance. 

Simple  as  tea  and  coffee  seem  as  seen  or  tasted,  viewed  by 
science  they  are  both  found  most  complex.  Three  of  their  con- 
stituents especially  concern  those  that  drink  them.  These  are 
/  tannin  (astringent  element) ;  caffeine  or  theine  (stimulating  ele- 
I  ment) ;  and  the  volatile  oil  that  gives  tea  its  flavor,  and  caffeol, 
the  oil  producing  the  aroma  and  flavor  of  coffee.  Heat  volatil- 
izes these  oils.  Tea  or  coffee  that  stands  loses  flavor,  and  tannin 
is  increasingly  extracted.  All  preparation  aims  to  decrease  this 
and  develop  flavor.  Coffee  contains  less  tannin  than  does  tea, 
and  black  tea  only  half  that  of  green.  Caffeine  or  theine  and 
volatile  oil  are  about  the  same  in  teas.  In  coffee  the  oil  (caffeol) 
is  developed  by  roasting  and  caffeine  is  somewhat  decreased. 

Adulterants  follow  all  foods  that  are  prepared  without  the 
first  concern  being  for  what  foods  do  to  persons.  All  sub- 
stances chemically  alike,  much  less  those  only  physically 
similar,  do  not  serve  the  human  system  similarly. 

PLANT  LIFE  AND  PLANT  FOODS  57 


TEA-CULTURE 


fti 


GROWTH  —  VARIETIES 


Tea  is  the  leaf  of  the  tea  plant  that  is  indigenous  to  Assam 
in  Burma.  For  over  fifteen  hundred  years  it  has  been  produced 
in  Japan  and  China.  Assam  tea  grows  large  but  tender  leaves. 
Its  growth  is  luxuriant  but  needs  protection  from  blights  of 
drought  and  cold.  A  score  of  crops  may  be  obtained  in  a  season. 
Other  kinds  of  tea  produce  three  or  four  crops  annually.  Chi- 
nese tea  is  a  hardy,  coarser  plant,  less  dependent  upon  soil,  cli- 
mate, or  water  supply.   Its  leaves  are  tougher,  smaller,  darker. 

It  is  young  leaves  that  are  desirable  for  tea,  hence  their 
abundance  is  sought  in  tea-growing.  The  varieties  of  tea  as 
purchased  are  but  gradation  of  the  leaves.  The  undeveloped 
bud.  is  known  as  flowery  pekoe.  It  is  not  usually  imported 
here.  The  last  developed  leaves  are  called  orange  pekoe  and 
pekoe  (see  below).  Souchong  and  then  congou  come  next. 
No  more  are  used  here. 

Any  variety  of  tea  may  be  made  either  black  or  green. 
Japanese  tea  is  usually  green ;  Indian,  black ;  Chinese,  both. 
Green  is  produced  by  withering  leaves  in  iron  receptacles  by 
quick  heating  or  steaming  on  mats.  Leaves  are  then  rolled  to 
release  oil  and  heated  long  at  low  temperature.  Black  tea 
is  sun-wilted,  rolled,  spread  thin,  moistened,  left  to  ferment, 
then  furnace-dried.  The  fermentation  makes  tannin  more 
insoluble,  so  less  dissolved  in  making  tea. 

In  green  teas  hyson  is  a  finer  variety,  gunpowder  a  coarser. 
Teas  often  carry  the  name  of  the 
location  of  their  growth,  as  Ceylon. 
Each  has  some  distinctive  char- 
acteristic due  to  its  culture  or 
manufacture.  Teas  obtainable  in 
the  United  States  are  usually  not 
the  finest  that  nature  produces.  Tea  leaves 


Flowery  pekoe 

Orange  pekoe 

Pekoe 

Souchong,  I  St 
-  Souchong,  2d 
•Congou 


55 


FOOD —WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


CULTIVATION  —  ADULTERATION 


COFFEE-PRODUCTION 


Coffee  is  the  berry  of  a  tropical  tree  native  in  Abyssinia  but 
now  widely  cultivated  in  tropical  regions.  Its  leaves  are  ever- 
green, its  blossoms  white,  its  berries  dark  and  pulpy,  contain- 
ing two  seeds  each.  The  seeds  are  the  coffee-beans.  The 
tree  blooms  two  thirds  of  the  year.  The  ripe  fruit  is  gathered 
three  times,  dried,  and  the  seeds  machine-freed.  The  bean  is 
roasted  to  develop  flavor  and  lessen  tannin  ;  this  also  decreases 
caffeine.    Roasted  beans  are  brittle  and  easily  ground. 

Varieties  of  coffee  may  come  from  different  localities,  though 
mixtures  even  so  named  often  are  but  different  berries  of  the 
same  plant.  This  is  said  to  be  true  of  Mocha  and  Java  as  bought. 
Brazil  supplies  three  fourths  of  the  coffee  used  here.  Some 
comes  from  Porto  Rico,  Maracaibo,  Ceylon,  Mocha,  Java. 

Unground  coffee  is  not  as  easily  adulterated  as  ground. 
Some  artificial  berries  have  been  made,  but  to-day  purchasing 
coffee  unground  is  thought  to  avoid  adulteration.  Into  coffee 
the  French  often  introduce  chicory  for  its  flavor.  Elsewhere 
this  may  be  used  because  cheaper  than  coffee.  Chicory  is  the 
most  common  coffee-adulterant.  Cereals,  beans,  peas  roasted, 
also  hulls  and  charcoal  are  other  materials  so  used.  When 
ground  coffee  is  shaken  in  cold  water,  pure  coffee  floats,  adul- 
terants usually  sink  and  may  discolor  the  water.  Tea  suffers 
less  adulteration  than  coffee.  Reselling  of  steeped  leaves 
mixed  with  fresh  is  the  commonest 
Mocha  {^^    ^     ^     deception  practiced  in  it. 

Cereal  coffees  are  substitutes  that 
aim  to  avoid  tannin  and  the  stimula- 
tion of  coiTee  while  furnishing  a  bev- 
M^     ^^     ^^     erage  of  more  or  less  palatability. 
P^      ^mP     ^^     This  is  sometimes  secured  by  adding 
Coffee-beans  some  coffee  or  its  flavoring  matter. 


Java 


Rio 


PLANT  LIFE  AND  PLANT  FOODS 


59 


COCOA 


GROWTH 


^^^/^ Tropical  vegetation  yields  another  beverage  in  cocoa.  The 
cacao  tree  {Theobroma  cacao)  is  a  native  of  Central  America. 
This  tree  has  several  distinctive  characteristics.  It  blossoms 
throughout  the  year  and  bears  fruit  of  all  ages  which  succes- 
sively ripens,  as  has  been  noted  of  other  tropical  plant  foods. 
The  trees  grow  from  seeds,  but  do  not  bear  until  the  fifth  or 
sixth  year.  Then  a  myriad  of  red  blossoms  make  a  large 
yellow  fruit  (nearly  i  ft.  long  and  ^  ft.  wide).  This  is  pulpy 
and  contains  from  two  to  four  dozen  seeds.  These  are  the 
cocoa-beans.  The  fruit  grows  on  the  trunks  of  the  trees  and 
on  the  main  limbs,  never  at  the  end  of  the  small  branches, 
that. could  not  sustain  its  weight. 

The  tree  itself  requires  particular  conditions  to  thrive.  It 
needs  air  in  plenty  and  light,  but  must  be  protected  from  the 
excessive  direct  rays  of  the  sun.  On  cocoa  plantations  the  tree 
is  sheltered  by  planting  taller  shade  trees  about  it.  The  tree 
itself  is  14-30  ft.  high  and  \-\  ft.  through.  Fertile,  protected 
valleys  are  sought  for  its  cultivation.  It  grows  wild  under  the 
conditions  propitious  for  its  development.  Though  it  requires 
other  trees  to  shade  it,  it  is  the  tree  that  itself  is  used  to 
support  the  vanilla  plant  that  is  a  parasite,  so  grows  only  on 
trees,  though  this  takes  its  sustenance  from  the  air  through  its 
aerial  roots.    Cocoa  and  vanilla  are  thus  cultivated  together. 

The  history  of  the  use  of  plants  for  food  often  reveals 
the  lack  of  earlier  communication 
between  countries  and  the  slow  in- 
terchange of  their  products  and  cus- 
toms. Cocoa  was  found  in  Mexico 
by  Cortes,  but  it  came  to  us  by  pass- 
ing to  Spain,  thence  to  Italy,  France, 
England,  and  back  to  America.  Branch  of  cocoa-tree 


60 


FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


MANUFACTURE 


CHOCOLATE 


Chocolate  was  not  used  in  England  until  the  beginning  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  though  it  was  introduced  into  Spain 
early  in  the  sixteenth.  America  began  the  preparation  of 
chocolate  in  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

The  ripened  fruit  is  gathered  from  the  tree,  opened,  and  the 
seeds  removed.  These  are  sun-dried  at  once  or  subjected  to 
a  fermentation  process  (''  sweating  "),  then  dried.  The  flavor 
is  improved  by  the  fermentation  and  the  bitterness  is  decreased. 
The  roasting  of  the  cocoa-beans  is  preceded  by  separating 
from  them  foreign  particles  and  sorting  the  beans  according  to 
size.  Thus  flavor  is  further  developed,  and  the  tannin  present 
is  converted  into  cocoa-red  that  colors  cocoa  characteristically. 
The  roasted  beans  then  have  their  hulls  cracked  off  and  re- 
moved by  winnowing.  The  beans  themselves  are  next  crushed 
and  the  germ  removed.  The  cracked  beans  known  as  cocoa- 
nibs  are  prepared  for  a  beverage  and  other  uses  noted  below. 
The  hiclls  are  sometimes  boiled  for  a  beverage,  but  are  more 
usually  employed  in  adulterating  cocoa  or  for  cattle-food. 

Chocolate  is  the  product  of  grinding  the  cocoa-nibs  (usually 
several  times).  This  is  then  semiliquid  and  can  be  run  into 
molds.  It  hardens  as  it  cools  and  is  unsweetened  chocolate. 
When  sugar  or  any  flavoring,  as  vanilla  or  cinnamon,  is  added 
to  chocolate,  it  is  introduced  while  chocolate  is  in  the  paste 
state.  The  fat  present  (50%)  can  be  partly  removed  under 
pressure.  Cocoa  butter  is  the  fat  so 
removed.  Its  use  is  largely  for  medical 
purposes  and  confectionery  coatings. 
Cocoa  in  its  purest  form  is  choco- 
late with  some  fat  removed.  This 
makes  its  powdered  form  possible. 
^Cocoa-beans  Starch  is  added  to  keep  it  so. 

FLANT  LIFE  AND  PLANT  FOODS  61 


COCOA  —  CHOCOLATE 


COMPOSITION  —  USE 


The  use  of  cocoa  has  greatly  increased  of  late  years.  This 
is  usually  attributed  to  its  food  value,  that  is  real,  though  prob- 
ably not  all  that  is  always  claimed  for  it. 
/  /'  Cocoa  contains  theobromine  (similar  to  caffeine  or  theine), 
also  a  little  caffeine.  But  its  stimulating  effect  is  slight,  far  less 
than  that  of  coffee  or  tea,  as  is  also  its  retardation  of  diges- 
tion, since  the  tannin  in  raw  cocoa-beans  is  transformed  in 
roasting.  Cocoa  as  a  beverage  has  much  less  fat  than  the  bean. 
This  varies  with  different  preparations.  When  pure  cocoa  is 
not  digestible,  it  is  due  to  the  fat.  Not  every  one  can  digest 
fat  easily.    Otherwise  cocoa  is  very  digestible. 

Though  cocoa  has  the  nourishing  food-constituents,  these 
are  insufficient  for  much  nutriment  in  the  quantity  in  which 
it  is  used  as  a  beverage.  Made  with  milk  there  is  more.  Cocoa 
is  not,  however,  a  negligible  factor  in  the  diet,  as  are  tea  and 
coffee  in  respect  to  nourishment.  The  fact  that  cocoa  as  mar- 
keted contains  starch  makes  it  important  that  it  be  cooked. 

Breakfast  Cocoas  (Selected  from  Olsen's  "  Pure  Foods  ") 


Ash 

Water 

Theobromine 

%IN 

Fat 

Starch,  etc. 

Protein 

5-54 

47 

8.19 

5-43 

4.27 
6.02 
4-53 

3-2 

1.02 

1.28 

.69 

Huyler 

Baker 

Van  Houten 

Lowney 

34-04 

29-3 

29.78 

23- 

18.7 
14.66 
29.96 
17.68 

17.29 

19-53 
17-03 
24.88 

Chocolate 

In  Different  Forms 

Ash 

Water 

Caf- 
feine 

Theo- 
bromine 

%IN 

Fat 

Sugar 

Starch 

Fiber 

Protein 

3- 
I. 

•3 

3. 

10.6 
10.6 

.4 
.1 
.04 

I. 

•4 
.1 

Pure 

Sweet 

Creams 

16.7 

5- 

57- 
79-4 

9.2 
2.76 

3- 

I. 

•3 

12. 

4- 
1.2 

It  is  the  pure  chocolate  that  is  supposed  to  be  used  in  cook- 
ing ;  but  often  it  is  mixed  with  sugar  and  cocoa  butter. 


62 


FOOD —WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


COMPARISON  —  SUMMARY 


BEVERAGES  —  NUTRIMENT 


Food  signifies  sustenance.  Beverages  stimulate  principally. 
The  refreshment  they  afford  may  have  purpose  in  adult  life 
when  those  are  used  that  neither  excite  nor  depress.  Such 
effects  injure  health.  The  nutritive  value  of  food -substances 
needs  to  be  estimated  for  foods  as  consumed.  Beverages  con- 
tain much  water.  This  diminishes  the  proportions  of  their 
constituents.  Since  only  the  liquid  is  used,  only  what  is 
soluble  in  water  is  consumed.    Protein  in  tea  is  insoluble. 


Tea  —  Coffee  —  Cocoa  —  Chocolate 


As  PRODUCED 


Protein 

%IN 

Fiber 

Sugar 

Fat 

Ash 

Tannin 

Theine 

(Insol- 
uble) 

37-33 
37-43 
38-9 

Tea  (original) 
Tea  (green) 
Tea  (black) 

10.44 
10.06 
10.07 

4.97 
4.92 

4-93 

12.91 

10.64 

4-89 

3-3 
3-2 
3-3 

Water 

Tannin  and 

Caffeine 

11.23 
1. 15 

12.07 
13-98 

Coffee  (raw) 
Coffee  (roasted) 

.66 
8.55 

12.27 
14.48 

3-92 

4-75 

1. 21 
1.24 

Starch 

Theo- 
bromine 

3- 
3.09 

12. 

Cocoa  (nibs) 

Cocoa 

Chocolate 

2-5 

5.02 

2.63 

27-5 

50. 

32.52 

49.81 

3-5 

4.2 
3.08 

•5 



Beverages  as  used  {i  pint  water  to  be  added  to  quantities  indicated) 


Water 

Protein 

%in 

Carbohydrates 

(sugar,  sugar-fiber) 

Fat 

Tannin 

Caffeine 

99-5 

.2 

Tea  (i  oz.) 

.6 

(See  statement, 

98.9 

.2 

Coffee  (I  oz.) 

.7 

P-55) 

99-5 

.2 

Cereal  {\  oz.) 

1.4 

(No  tannin 

99-5 

.2 

Parched  corn  ( i  .6  oz.) 

•5 

nor  caffeine) 

99-7 

•3 

Oatmeal  water  (i  oz.) 
Cocoa  {\  oz.) 

•3 

97.1 

.6 

With  water 

I.I 

•Q 

84.5 

3-8 

With  milk 

6. 

4.7 

90-5 

3-4 

Milk  (skimmed) 

5-1 

•3 

(Arranged  from  Snyder's  "  Human  Foods  ") 

PLANT  LIFE  AND  PLANT  FOODS 


63 


SUGARS 


SOURCE  —  KINDS 


Sugar  is  another  product  of  vegetation.  It  is  consumed 
in  various  forms  in  large  quantities.  The  reported  sugar- 
consumption  in  1895  gives  for  England  86  lb.  per  capita,  and 
for  the  United  States  64  lb.,  and  80  lb.  in  191 2. 

Sugar-cane  until  recently  yielded  the  sugar  consumed  as 
food.  Now  sugar-beets  supply  an  increasing  proportion  of 
that  used.  Substitute  sirups  are  also  taking  the  place  of 
cane-sugar  in  manufactured  foods. 

Production  of  sugar  from  sugar-cane  consists  in  cutting 
and  pressing  the  cane  to  secure  the  juice.  This  is  purified 
and  evaporated.  The  sugar  then  crystallizes.  Such  sugar  is 
brown.  The  sirup  left  is  molasses.  When  sugar  is  made 
from  beets,  the  sugar  is  dissolved  from  the  beets  after  they 
have  been  chopped  fine. 

Refining  raw  sugar  is  accomplished  by  a  series  of  processes 
that  remove  all  impurities,  reevaporate  it  and  recrystallize  the 
sugar  in  purer  form.  Slight  difference  in  degree  of  coarseness 
of  sugar  is  produced  in  the  crystallizing  of  the  grains.  But 
powdered  sugar  is  ground  usually  from  that  broken  in  cutting 
loaf  sugar  for  table  use.  Its  seeming  lack  of  sweetness  is  due 
to  its  fine  division,  not  necessarily  to  adulteration.  Sugar  that 
entirely  dissolves  is  probably  pure.  If  starch  were  added  it 
would  remain  insoluble. 

Glucose  is  a  sirup  commercially  produced  from  corn  and 
used  as  a  sugar  substitute  in  made-foods,  especially  candies.  It 
should  be  wholesome  if  pure  and  carefully  made.  Glucose 
when  pure  is  a  predigested  food,  that  is,  is  ready  for  assimi- 
lation as  consumed.  But  all  digestive  processes  performed  for 
the  body  outside  of  it  do  not  always  aid  it,  even  though  it  is 
not  known  exactly  why  they  do  not.  The  body  to  be  properly 
fed  seems  to  need  to  do  its  own  work  of  digestion. 

64  FOOD—  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


SUMMARY 


VEGETATION 


Vegetation  includes  all  plant  life  and  is  the  source  of  all 
plant  foods.  Tropical  vegetation  shows  characteristics  that 
distinguish  it  from  that  of  the  temperate  zone.  Tropical  growth 
is  luxuriant ;  the  fruit  is  abundant  and  usually  fragrant  and 
luscious  ;  the  crops  are  many  a  year ;  all  ages  grow  together 
and  ripen  successively.  The  inclusion  of  tropical  products  in 
the  diet  of  colder  climates  is  not  simply  bringing  foods  at  sea- 
sons that  they  would  not  grow  in  any  but  a  tropical  region,  but 
is  bringing  foods  of  ever  new  growth  almost  continuously.  The 
tropics  also  supply  some  foods  that  other  regions  cannot ;  for 
example,  many  spices. 

Needs  of  vegetation  itself  are  those  common  to  life,  for  vege- 
tation is  living.  It  is  also  working.  For  living  it  needs  itself 
water,  air,  and  food  suited  to  its  uses.  Plants  make  in  them- 
selves from  their  own  foods,  that  would  not  nourish  animals 
and  humankind,  substances  that  serve  as  human  foods  and  for 
animals  too.  This  is  only  part,  though  a  most  significant  part, 
of  the  work  that  vegetation  does  through  its  life-activity. 

Supplies  of  food  from  vegetation  are  most  varied,  as  they 
include  grains,  vegetables,  fruits,  spices,  nuts,  leaves  and  seeds 
serving  as  beverages,  and  seeds  producing  oil.  These  include 
all  food-constituents  needed  for  the  life  of  humankind,  though 
an  exclusively  vegetable  diet  is  not  advised  generally  by  food- 
scientists.  It  is,  however,  upon  vegetation  alone  that  reliance 
must  be  placed  for  starch,  and  mainly  for  sugar  too.  Protein 
and  mineral  matter  it  furnishes  in  common  with  animal  life, 
and  is  beginning  to  rival  animal  life  as  a  source  for  fats,  since 
the  consumption  of  vegetable  oils  is  greatly  increasing. 

Humanity  not  only  uses  vegetation  for  food  and  other  living- 
needs  but  also  learns  much  from  it  concerning  nature's  work- 
ings.   Through  this  it  ever  finds  new  aid  possible. 

PLANT  LIFE  AND  PLANT  FOODS  65 


VALUE  OF  VEGETATION 


LIFE-NEEDS 


All  living  matter  requires  for  life,  food,  air,  water.  Thirst, 
hunger,  suffocation,  result  from  lack  of  water,  food,  air.  Life 
ceases  when  living  things  are  deprived  of  air.  Lack  of  water 
can  be  endured  less  long  than  lack  of  food.  But  the  greater 
effort  required  to  secure  food  makes  it  seem  the  most  impor- 
tant need  of  life.  Air,  water,  food,  are  all  essential ;  air  con- 
tinuously, water  and  food,  periodically. 

Vegetation  supplies  plant  food  and  purifies  the  atmosphere. 

Its  production  of  plant  food  is  no  less  significant  to  human 

life  than  its  effect  upon  the  air-supply.     Plants  live  as  do 

I  animals  and  humanity.    All  breathe  alike  in  that  they  take  in 

^    air  and  give  out  carbon  dioxid  (CO^)  both  day  and  night. 

This  process  of  living  is  called  respiration. 

In  the  other  processes  of  living,  plants  and  animals  differ 
more.  But  in  the  internal  activities  of  physical  living,  animals 
and  humanity  are  very  similar,  though  their  food  differs  in 
kind.  The  food  of  plants  differs  from  that  of  both.  Plants 
themselves  become  the  food  of  both  animals  and  humankind. 
Foods  are  of  use  to  living  organisms  only  as  they  unite  with 
the  oxygen  of  the  air  breathed  in  during  respiration.  This 
w£^  combining  of  food  and  oxygen  is  part  of  the  process  of  nutri- 
/  tion ;  that  is,  the  physiological  utilization  of  food. 

Green  plants  use  as  food  ^  the  carbon  of  the  carbon  dioxid 
that  is  breathed  out  by  all  living  things.  The  green  coloring 
matter  of  plants  seen  in  leaves  is  called  chlorophyll.  Through 
the  agency  of  chlorophyll  green  plants  have  the  power  in  the' 
presence  of  stcnlight  to  break  up  carbon  dioxid,  use  the  carbon 
as  food,  and  return  the  oxygen  it  contains  to  the  atmosphere. 
But  for  this  function  of  green  vegetation  the  carbon  dioxide 
breathed  out  by  the  living  of  humanity,  animals  and  plants 
would  render  the  air  unable  to  support  life. 

66  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


PLANT-CONSTRUCTION 


VALUE  OP  VEGETATION 


Carbon  of  carbon  dioxid  taken  for  food  by  plants  not  only 
purifies  the  atmosphere  but  is  transformed  from  carbon  that 
animals  and  humankind  cannot  use  directly  into  carbohydrates 
in  the  plants  which  both  animals  and  humankind  need  and  se- 
cure in  consuming  plants.  Oils  in  plants  are  similarly  produced. 

Mineral  matter  plants  obtain  from  the  soil  through  their  roots. 
They  associate  these  in  themselves  with  the  other  substances 
of  which  plants  are  constituted.  It  is  thus  the  mineral  salts 
are  passed  from  inorganic  (non-living)  nature  through  organic 
(living)  nature  in  plants  to  animals  and  humankind.  Such 
salts  are  necessary  for  bone-building,  also  for  such  regulation 
of  density  of  the  liquids  of  the  body  as  will  insure  their  transfu- 
sion through  body-tissues,  which  is  the  need  in  body-living. 

Though  many  of  the  salts  used  by  the 'body  can  be  produced 
in  isolation  from  plant  or  other  living  substance,  the  body  can- 
not make  the  same  use  of  them  when  so  made.  The  mineral 
salts  of  fruits  are  usable  by  the  body  and  most  serviceable  to  it 
as  they  are  taken  in  association  with  organic  matter.  It  is  thus 
that  they  exist  in  vegetables  and  fruits,  in  which  living  plants 
have  grown  them  into  association  with  the  organic  substances. 

Drugs  of  the  same  chemical  composition  as  such  salts  or 
any  artificial  preparations  of  these  are  not  always  so  assuredly 
absorbed.  What  fruits  naturally  do  when  taken  into  the  body 
to  keep  it  in  health  cannot  be  artificially  effected.  Why  this 
is  so  is  not  fully  known,  but  the  fact  is  increasingly  recog- 
nized and  is  one  cause  for  increased  fruit-consumption. 

Protein,  the  food-constituent  that  carries  nitrogen  —  an  ele- 
ment essential  to  the  life  of  every  living  cell  —  from  nature 
to  animals  and  humankind  is  built  up  by  plants  from  com- 
pounds plants  take  from  the  soil  in  their  living.  Leguminous 
plants  do  likewise  with  free  nitrogen  from  the  atmosphere. 

PLANT  LIFE  AND  PLANT  FOODS  67 


PLANT-ACTIVITY 


EFFECTS 


The  effects  of  plant-activity  in  the  working  of  nature  are 
significant  to  all  life  upon  the  earth.  Plant-activity  effects 
production  of  plant  foods  in  which  simple  substances  are 
naturally  made  into  the  more  complex  that  alone  can  nourish 
the  higher  forms  of  physical  life,  namely,  animals  and  human- 
kind. It  effects  purification  of  the  atmosphere  by  removing 
carbon  dioxid  from  it  and  returning  to  it  the  oxygen  from  the 
decomposed  carbon  dioxid  and  by  taking  from  the  atmosphere 
some  of  its  free  nitrogen  through  the  agency  of  leguminous 
plants  and  transforming  this  into  nitrogen  compounds  of  the 
soil.  It  also  effects  construction  of  the  plant  protein  from  the 
nitrogen  compounds  of  the  soil  and  carries  the  mineral  salts 
from  the  soil  into  association  with  organic  matter,  thus  bring- 
ing these  salts  into  usable  form  in  human  plant-foods.  These 
effects  of  plant-activity  alter  favorably  the  air  breathed  and 
construct  substances  usable  as  human  foods. 

Another  group  of  its  effects  is  scarcely  less  important.  As 
vegetation  grows  it  needs  moisture.  Where  forests  have  been 
depleted,  the  water  they  would  use  passes  to  the  streams,  that 
may  then  overflow,  damaging  the  life  they  reach  instead  of 
serving  to  increase  its  security  by  fertility  and  an  abundant 
water-supply.  Forests  modify  all  wind-effects  and  break  the 
lower  currents  of  air  so  that  their  control  is  largely  determined 
by  whether  there  are  forests  standing  as  a  protection  to  life. 

The  life-activity  of  green  vegetation  in  adding  oxygen  to 
the  air-supply  makes  life-invigorating  the  atmosphere  of  forest 
regions,  particularly  those  that  are  evergreen.  The  currents 
of  air  by  movement  pass  some  of  this  fresher  air  to  congested 
localities.  Parks,  trees,  and  gardens  in  town  serve  the  same 
purpose  there  as  the  forests  do  in  the  country  at  large.  Plants 
in  rooms  perform  a  like  service  during  simlight, 

68  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


DANGERS 


BACTERIAL  LIFE 


Since  bacteria  have  been  known  as  the  cause  of  some  dis- 
eases, they  have  been  commonly  regarded  as  foes  to  human  Hfe. 
So  they  may  prove  to  be  if  of  disease-producing  types  or  even 
if  not,  when  they  are  consumed  in  large  quantities.  This  is  inva- 
riably the  case  when  underprotected  or  overkept  food  is  eaten, 
whether  it  be  salads,  milk,  ice-cream,  preserved  food,  water,  or 
any  easily  contaminated  substance  that  humanity  consumes. 
But  some  bacteria  there  are  which  play  a  friendly  role  in  nature 
by  helping  in  production  of  foods  that  nourish  humanity. 

Dangers  from  bacteria  can  be  averted  when  understood. 
Dust  is  bacteria-laden,  hence  the  necessity  of  protecting  from 
dust  everything  to  be  eaten,  worn,  or  otherwise  used  by  hu- 
manity. If  the  air  breathed  carries  disease-germs  it  may  cause 
disease.  The  air-supply  needs  therefore  to  be  pure,  free  not 
only  from  excess  of  carbon  dioxid  but  also  from  such  bacteria 
as  can  harm  humankind.  Tuberculosis  is  spread  by  dried  dust 
carrying  the  germs  cast  off  by  those  diseased.  Bacteria  thrive 
in  the  soil  many  inches  deep.  The  plant  food-supply  needs 
therefore  to  be  soil-free  as  used.  Water  in  passing  through 
soil  may  take  with  it  what  soil  contains.  If  sewage  drains 
through  to  the  water-supply,  the  water  may  contain  the  bacteria 
that  may  infest  the  intestinal  tract.  That  of  typhoid  fever  is 
one  of  these,  so  is  borne  by  water  to  humanity.  Only  thoroughly 
boiled,  filtered,  or  purified  water  is  assuredly  germ-free. 

Some  chemicals  prevent  bacterial  growth,  but  they  would 
usually  also  render  a  substance  unfit  for  use  as  a  food.  Heat 
fortunately  is  also  a  destroyer  of  bacterial  vitality.  This  makes 
cooking  of  importance  in  obtaining  germ-free  food.  But  all 
bacteria  are  not  destroyed  by  the  temperatures  non-destructive 
to  food,  and  some  grow  without  air,  so  preserved  foods  can 
contain  many  bacteria,  though  freed  of  putrefactive  bacteria. 

PLANT  LIFE  AND  PLANT  FOODS  69 


BACTERIAL  ACTIVITY 


SIGNIFICANCE 


It  is  only  in  modern  times  that  bacteria  have  themselves 
become  known,  though  the  effects  of  their  living  have  been 
experienced  probably  always  and  recognized  more  or  less  since 
ancient  times.  Bacteria  abound  everywhere  in  air,  water,  soil. 
Wherever  they  are  they  are  doing  something'.  They  break 
down  the  substances  they  live  on.  Human  beings  are  the  host 
upon  which  disease-bacteria  subsist. 

The  work  of  non-disease  bacteria  in  nature  is  real  and  of 
unique  value,  as  they  have  a  necessary  part  in  life,  not  shared 
by  other  organisms  or  done  by  other  agencies.  Bacteria  are  liv- 
ing organisms,  so  require  the  conditions  necessary  to  their  life 
in  order  to  live  ;  nitrogenous  food,  moisture  and  usually  air. 

Bacteria  utilize  the  nitrogenous  substances  that  are  the 
waste-products  of  the  living  of  higher  forms  of  physical  life 
and  that  are  not  directly  usable  by  vegetation.  These  they 
break  up  into  simpler  nitrogen  compounds  that  plants  can  use. 
They  also  free  some  nitrogen  to  the  atmosphere.  But  for  such 
bacterial  activity,  nitrogen  in  the  forms  needed  everywhere  in 
life  would  not  be  available. 

Until  the  microscope  was  invented  bacteria  were  not  seen. 
They  are  such  minute  organisms  that  they  have  to  be  enlarged 
(some,  1 200  times)  to  be  visible  to  the  human  eye.  Though 
not  wholly  like  non-microscopic  plants,  they  have  more  plant 
characteristics  than  animal. 
The  use  of  bacteria  to  both 

plants  and    animals   is   their       ^/^B^  ^'l^A^^^r Y"^^ 

life-activity.     This  makes  the       1,^^^)  l^Ui^-^^^ 

products  of  living  of  animals         ''"^  ^'/^^  Vy^^^^^ 

of  use  to  plants  that  in  turn  '""'^•(.V^^/ 

themselves  make  food  for  ani-    Bacteria  in  drop  of7nilk;  mtdti- 

mals  and  humankind.  pUcatiojj,  in  12  hrs.  (After  Russell) 

70  FOOD—  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


DEVELOPMENT-FORMS 


LIVING  ORGANISMS 


When  conditions  are  not  favorable  to  bacterial  life  some 
bacteria  die,  others  pass  into  resistant,  resting  forms.  These 
are  called  spores.  They  are  not  easily  destroyed,  therefore 
may  remain  alive  in  water  or  food  or  air  even  after  subjected 
to  great  heat.  When  favorable  conditions  for  bacterial  growth 
are  reestablished,  spores  become  active,  change  back  into  the 
growing  form  of  bacteria,  and  these  then  multiply. 

Seeds  of  plants  are  not  like  bacterial  spores.  The  two 
should  not  be  confused.  Seeds  are  more  than  alive  forms 
that  return  to  a  growing  state  under  reinstatement  of  favorable 
conditions.  Seeds  bring  forth  new  plants.  Spores  are  bac- 
teria that  remain  alive  when  deprived  of  what  they  need  to 
grow.  Spores  form  under  conditions  of  destitution ;  seeds  U 
under  conditions  favorable  to  growth.  Bacteria  reproduce  in 
general  by  the  subdividing  of  the  bacterial  organism  itself  and 
the  repeated  redividing  of  the  subdivisions.  See  diagrams 
below. 

Humankind,  animals,  plants,  bacteria,  are  all  living  organ-  — * 
isms.    Their  processes  of  living,  growing,  reproducing,  and 
readjusting  themselves  differ  somewhat,  but  they  all  interwork. 

Organisms  are  forms  of  life  that,  in  addition  to  existing, 
are  somewhat  active  and  change  somewhat.  They  live,  grow, 
reproduce  their  kind  similarly,  but  tend  to  change  slightly  in 
response  to  whatever  differs  in  their  action.  It  is  living  and 
^-^  . — .  ^-^^--^  ^^  ^^  working  that  provides  food  to 
\^  \ )  \^^A^_y  V_y  v^  sustain  life.  It  is  through  re- 
production that  generation  fol- 
lows generation,  and  that  the 
^         ^  species  or  race  lives  on:    It  is 

C         1         \  through  a  new  response  in  ac- 

Reproduction  by  fission,  (After  Conn)  tion  that  any  advance  occurs. 

CYCLE  OF  NATURE  71 


PRODUCTS  OF  LIVING 


FUNCTIONS  IN  LIFE 


The  products  of  living  of  different  types  of  organisms  are 
alike  in  some  respects  and  unlike  in  others.  Complex  prod- 
ucts cast  off  by  one  organism  as  of  no  further  use  for  it  are 
broken  down  into  simpler  forms  by  some  other  organism,  and 
by  another  are  built  up  anew  into  a  newly  combined  complex 
substance  usable  by  still  others.  Waste  products  of  living 
are  usually  broken  down.  What  is  consumed  is  built  up  into 
something  new  or  used  up  in  something  done  as  work. 

In  their  functions,  that  is,  what  they  do  in  nature  through 
their  living,  organisms  of  different  types  are  less  alike  even 
than  in  their  products  of  living.  Their  functions  are  therefore 
very  important.  If  one  fails  in  what  it  alone  can  do,  others  or 
all  are  hindered  and  delayed,  or  may  even  be  destroyed. 
/      Bacteria  carry  nitrogen  from  the  complex  forms  of  nitrog- 

f    enous  waste  products  of  animal  life  to  the  simpler  compounds 
■\    serving  plants  as  food. 

L  Plants  build  nitrogen  into  protein  —  the  btcilding  food  of 
animal  life  —  by  combining  it  with  other  elements.  Plants  de- 
"^  compose  the  carbon  dioxid  of  expired  air  and  so  unite  the 
carbon  with  hydrogen  and  oxygen  as  to  construct  sugar, 
starch,  cellulose,  oil,  —  carbohydrates  and  fats,  —  the  heat- 
etiergy  foods  of  animal  life.  Plants  also  carry  the  salts  of 
minerals  into  combination  with  organic  substances,  which  is 
the  only  form  in  which  they  are  thoroughly  assimilable  by 
animal  organisms.  Mineral  salts  are  the  regulating  food- 
elements  for  animal  life  ;  they  build  somewhat,  too. 

Animals  make  no  really  new  kind  of  food-substance.  They 
do,  however,  so  transform  some  substances  as  to  make  them 
more  readily  or  fully  digested  by  humankind.  Vegetable  pro- 
tein is  incased  in  cellulose  (woody  fiber).  This  makes  it  less 
fully  available  for  use  than  animal  protein. 

72  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


ELEMENTS  IN  FOOD 


ADVANCEMENT  OF  LIFE 


The  work  of  food-production  as  a  process  of  nature  is. 
progressive,  but  moves  ever  in  an  interworking  cycle  that 
conserves  all  products  of  living  as  well  as  constructs  all  used 
for  food.  In  general  function  in  nature  bacteria  decompose,, 
plants  construct,  animals  transform.  Human  beings  give  off 
carbon  dioxid  that  plants  use  and  nitrogenous  waste  that  bac- 
teria use.  But  in  these  nothing  new  is  contributed,  as  they  are 
also  the  products  of  living  of  all  animal  life. 

The  part  humanity  uniquely  performs  in  food-production 
is  mainly  mental  in  the  practical  and  scientific  conduct  of  liv- 
ing. Human  work  enters  into  food-cultivation,  care,  selection, 
preparation  for  humankind,  animals,  plants,  bacteria.  Be- 
cause of  humanity's  greater  physical  dexterity  and  elasticity  in 
developing  new  powers,  it  is  humanity  that  learns  how  nature 
interworks  and  can  be  worked  together  so  as  to  advance  race- 
life  and  extend  natural  resources  and  their  utilization. 

The  foods  of  bacteria,  plants,  animals,  humankind,  which  in 
themselves  differ,  contain  the  same  chemicaT  elements  vari- 
ously combined  and  in  varying  quantities.  The  chief  of  these 
are  nitrogen,  carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen.  There  are  many 
others  of  great  importance  too,  though  used  in  much  smaller 
amounts.  Such  are  calcium,  sodium,  potassium,  sulphur, 
phosphorus.  What  these  do  as  substances  alone  is  different 
from  what  they  do  when  combined.  Different  combinations 
also  act  differently.  How  these  elements  are  brought  together 
determines  the  constitution  of  the  foods  or  organisms  they 
compose.  Air,  sunlight,  soil,  water,  have  part  in  effecting 
these  combinations.  Plants  need  sunlight  to  get  carbon  from 
carbon  dioxid ;  bacteria  leave  the  nitrogen  compounds  in  the 
soil ;  plants  find  them  there  ;  water  aids  in  the  transfusion  of 
food  as  food  is  being  transformed  for  assimilation  in  the  body. 

CYCLE  OF  NATURE  73 


FOOD-CYCLE 


BACTERIA  —  PLANTS  —  ANIMALS  —  HUMANKIND 


Take  from  Nature  Give  to  Nature 

Air,  water,  food  (vegetable  and  animal)    Humankind  Carbon  dioxid  and  nitrogenous 

waste  products 
Air,  water,  food  (vegetable) 


Animals 


Air,  water,  carbon,   nitrogen  and  its 
compounds,  and  min  eral  salts 


Plants 


Air,  water,  nitrogenous  waste  products      Bacteria 


Carbon  dioxid  and  nitrogenous 
waste  products,  and  them- 
selves as  human  food 
Carbon  dioxid  and  themselves 
as  animal  and  human  food 
Nitrogen   and   nitrogen  com- 
pounds 


Carbon  passes  through  the  atmosphere  to  plants ;  nitrogen 

(generally)  through  the  soil. 
Oxygen  unites  with  food  in  chemical  action  from  which  heat 

evolves.    This  is  the  source  of  body-energy  and  heat. 
Find  on  diagram  below  as  many  of  above  facts  as  possible. 


nimal    Life^ 


starch,  Sug^r,  Cellulose 

Protein ;  fat  (oils), 

Mineral  Salts 


Plan 


Waste  products  of  living 

Carbon  dioxid    and 
Nitrogenous  Substances 


Bacterial   Life 


Nitrogen  and 
Nitrogen  Compounds 


Atmosphere 
^  "Soil^  ^ 


74 


FOOD-CYCLE  OF  NATURE 


VEGETABLE  CELLS  PLANT-STRUCTURE 

CELLULOSE  AND  STARCH  IN  PLANT  CELLS 


Pla7it  cell 

Cellular  structure 
(After  Kdnig) 


Potato 

Transverse  section.   (After 
Cowden  and  Bussard) 


Potato  starch  in 
cellular  cells 
(After  Konig) 


Cut  cross-sections  of  vegetables  and  fruits,  as  beet,  parsnip, 
onion,  cucumber,  tomato,  orange,  lemon. 

Draw  the  lines  that  are  visible.  See  thin  sections  under 
microscope  whenever  possible. 

Look  at  cross-sections  of  plant  stems  and  of  woods. 


SPIROGYRA 


chlorophyll 

•cell-wall 

clear  body  of  cell 


Chlorophyll :  Green  coloring  matter  in 
vegetation 

(After  Green) 


DEVELOPING  VEGETABLE  CELLS 


Very  young  Older  cells  Adult  vegetable  cells 

(/,  protoplasm  ;  w,  nucleus ;  v^  vacuole  ;  w,  cell-wall  —  much  magnified) 


PLANT  LIFE  AND  PLANT  FOODS 


75 


STARCH  GRAINS 


m  SEEDS 


STARCH 


(JO 


^^^ 


o^ 


c4> 


Corn 


<o  . 


Wheat 


o&w. 


OS 


(5)  a 


?     4  Oq   <i0  ^ 


Barley 


Rice 


Oats 


Starch  in  Vegetable  Foods 


% 

Rice 

794 

2-5 

Melons 

Rye  Flour 

78.7 

6.2 

Cabbages 

Buckwheat  Flour 

77.6 

6.9 

Turnips 

Wheat  Flour 

75.6 

lO.I 

Carrots 

Graham  Flour 

7?.8 

14-3 

Apples 

Corn  Meal 

71- 

16.3 

Pears 

Oatmeal 

68.1 

21.3 

Potatoes 

Beans 

574 

21. 1 

Sweet  Potatoes 

Wheat  Bread 

55-5 

23-3 

Bananas 

(From  Atwater's  Analyses) 

76 


FOOD -- WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


IN  1912-1913 


SOME  WORLD  CROPS 


In   1913 

Wheat  .    .    .    250,133,333  bushels  12%  less  than  in  19 12 

In  Argentina,  Australia,  New  Zealand 

Rice  ....    82,544,000,000  pounds      Slightly /<?j"j- than  in  1912 

In  Spain,   Italy,  United   States,   India, 
Japan,  Egypt 

Sugar     .    .    .  8,960,000  short  tons  2.3%  more  than  in  19 12 

In  Russia,  Roumania,  Germany,  Australia, 
Belgium,   Denmark,   France,  Hun- 
gary,  Italy,    Netherlands,    Switzer- 
land, United  States 

Corn.    .    .    .    10,260,000  acres  8.4%  more  than  in  1912 

In  Argentina 

Oats   ....  87,500,000  bushels  33.1%  /^j-j- than  in  19 12 

In  Argentina,  New  Zealand 

Flax    ....  2,723,000  acres  21.2%  /ess  than  in  1912 

In  India 

(Report  to  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  from  the  International  Institute  of 
Agriculture  at  Rome,  Italy) 

Make  a  comparative  table  of  the  above  products  for  191 2 

and  191 3. 
Which  countries  produced  less  of  these  in  191 3  than  in  191 2  ? 


Ce?'es 
PLANT  LIFE  AND  PLANT  FOODS  77 


CROPS  AND  LAND  DISTRIBUTION 

VALUE  OF  ALL  CROPS  IN  1909 


UNITED  STATES  IN  1909-1910 
CROPS;   BY  STATES 


CFrom  the  Thirteenth  Census  of  the  United  States,  1910) 
LAND  AREA 


IMPROVED  LAND 


In  1899  I^  ^9°9 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  ALL  CROPS,  1909 


Other  crops 


78 


Other  cereals 

FOOD— WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


U.S.A.— 1909 

New  England 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  ALL  CROPS 

N.  E.  Central  N.  W.  Central 


(From  the  Thirteenth  Census  of  the  United  States,  19  lo) 
Other  crops  ^^^      JUJIH  Other  cereals 

Compare  with  maps  on  pp.  i8,  19,  49. 

Which  divisions  have  the  same  chief  products  ? 

Write  a  list  of  all  the  products  named  above.    After  each 

product  write  the  divisions  producing  it,  in  the  order  of 

the  quantity  produced. 


PLANT  LIFE  AND  PLANT  FOODS 


79 


FOOD  SUPPLY  — DIET  FORMATION 

Nature  is  the  source  of  the  Food  Supply. 
The  Farm  is  the  center  of  Food-Production. 

Humankind  suppHes  the  workers. 
Humanity  is  the  consumer. 

What  is  needed  for  nourishment  should  be 
cultivated,  marketed,  selected,  consumed. 

Plant  foods  will  sustain  life.     Many  digest 

slowly. 
Animal  foods  digest  more  fully  but  are  not 

serviceable  alone. 

The  value  of  plants  and  animals  as  Human 
Food  is  increased  by  Plant  and  Animal 
Food  being  used  together. 

Food  repairs  the  body,  supplies  energy  for 
activity,  and  body-heat. 


American  Oyster  Fleet 
80 


ANIMAL  LIFE  AND  ANIMAL  FOODS 

Animal  Food  in  Living — Industry  —  Commerce  82  p 

Animal  Food  —  Expense  —  Availability  83 

Animal  Life  —  Needs  —  Effects  of  Living  84-5 

Meats  :  Beef,  Veal,  Mutton,  Lamb,  Pork,  Bacon  86-7 

Meat  Cutting  —  General  Cuts  —  Carving  Meat  88-9 

Animal  Diagrams  :  Skeleton  —  Muscles  —  Cuts  90-3 

Meat  Composition  —  Characteristics  as  purchased  94-5 

Cooking  Meat :  Methods  —  Effects  —  Fibers  96-9 

Small  Animals  :  Chicken  —  Game  —  Fish  loo-i 

Shell-fish  —  Fish  in  Season  —  Fish  Food  102-3 

Eggs:  Composition  —  Cooking — Eggs  as  Food  104-5 

Preservation —  Quality  —  Test — Use  —  Production  106-9 

Milk  Supply  —  Composition  —  Use  —  Milk  as  Food  i  lo-i 

Digestibility — Availability — Characteristics  1 1 2-5 

Forms  of  Milk  —  Changes  in  Milk  1 16-7 

Preservation  —  Protection  —  Test  —  Quality  1 1 8-9 

Butter  —  Dairy-Products  —  Cheese  1 20-1 

Maps  on  Distribution  of  Food-  and  Work -Animals  122-5 

Summary  on  Animal  Foods  in  the  Diet  126 


French  Oyster  Fleet 
SI 


ANIMAL  FOOD  IN  LIVING 


INDUSTRY  —  COMMERCE 


Animal  foods  are  expensive  and  contain  much  refuse. 
Their  extractives  tend  to  overstimulate. 

Protein,  fat,  mineral  matter,  zvater  are  the  constituents  of 

animal  food. 
Excess  of  protein  food  is  a  health-menace. 

Animal  health  and  sanitary  environment  for  animals  are  the 
necessary  forerunners  of  wholesomeness  of  animal  food. 


Veal 


Lamb 


Chicago  is  the  meat  center  of  the  United  States. 

The  workers  employed  number  40,000 ;  200,000  form  the 

packing  population ;    1 200  farmers  come  daily  to  the 

stockyards  with  cattle,  sheep,  hogs. 
Live  stock  worth  over  $1,000,000  are  received  every  day. 

1912  1860 

2,650,000  Cattle  42,000 

500,000  Calves                      

6,000,000  Sheep                      

8,000,000  Hogs  00,000 

$390,000,000  worth  of  live  stock  is  sold  yearly  at  the  Chicago  yards. 
$300,000,000  of  this  value  is  raw  material. 
$90,000,000  is  labor. 

$300,000,000  capitalization  covers  the  Chicago  plants  and  their  plants 
in  other  American  and  foreign  cities. 

(Data  used  from  Report  of  Chicago  Association  of  Commerce.) 


82 


FOOD— WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


EXPENSE— AVAILABILITY  "S^  ANIMAL  FOOD 

Animals  used  for  food  range  from  3  to  8  years  of  age.  ^ 
(Steer  from  4  to  5  years  gives  the  best  beef.)  The  time,  care, 
food  that  animals  require  arid  the  difficulty  of  the  preservation 
of  meat  make  it  essentially  a  more  expensive  food  than  those 
that  take  less  time,  attention,  care,  and  expenditure  to  pro- 
duce. In  general,  food  from  the  vegetable  kingdom  costs  less 
than  from  the  animal.  The  vegetable  kingdom  provides  the 
food  for  the  animal.  It  is,  however,  the  less  expensive  foods 
from  the  vegetable  kingdom  which  are  used  as  foods  by 
animals,  that  in  turn  become  food  for  humankind. 

Animals,  in  being  more  subject  to  disease  than  plants,  do 
not  supply  so  large  a  proportion  of  food  from  those  produced 
for  food.  To  this  must  be  added  the  further  facts  that  all  of  the 
animal  is  not  edible  (about  ^  is  not)  and  all  parts  do  not  provide 
equally  desirable  food.  The  fore  quarters  of  beef,  which  are 
inferior  as  food  to  the  hind  quarters,  weigh  ^  more  than  the 
hind  quarters.  Together  these  facts  make  meat  expensive, 
especially  the  more  tender  parts.  Conditions  of  commerce  still 
further  affect  the  cost  of  such  foods  in  very  appreciable  ways. 

Animal  food  has  worked  over  in  it  the  constituents  of  the 
plants  animals  eat.  These  thus  become  available  as  human 
food.  The  edible  portions  of  animal  food  are  more  fully  , 
digestible  than  plant  foods  edible  for  humankind.  Ninety-five  ft/v^ 
per  cent  of  animal  protein  is  digested  ;  only  85  %  of  vegetable. 
This  is  due  more  to  the  arrangement  of  the  latter  within  vege- 
table fiber  than  to  the  chemical  difference  in  plant  and  animal 
protein.  This,  and  the  fact  that  animal  food  contains  more 
protein,  makes  the  excess  of  such  protein  in  human  diet  more 
possible  and  probable  from  meat  than  vegetables.  In  this  re- 
spect animal  food  is  concentrated  food.  This  makes  little  of  it 
advisable.    Expense  makes  but  little  of  it  generally  available. 

ANIMAL  LIFE  AND  ANIMAL  FOODS  83 


L  LIFE 


Lime 


NEEDS  — QUALITY 


iimals  live ;  they  need  provisions  for  life — air,  water,  food. 
Ail  clnimals  need  these.  All  do  not,  however,  eat  the  same 
food.  Science  has  studied  the  food-needs  of  work-animals  and 
food-animals,  also  the  conditions  that  foster  the  effectiveness 
of  each ;  these  differ.  Animals  strengthened  for  work  and 
toughened  by  it  and  exposure  are  thereby  rendered  undesirable 
for  food. 

Work-animals  need  health.  But  for  food-animals  health 
is  indispensable.  Ill  animals,  even  if  not  diseased  in  ways  to 
cause  the  same  disease  in  persons,  are  unfit  food.  Human 
health  cannot  be  promoted  by  diseased  food  of  any  kind. 
Human  health  is  the  purpose  of  human  food.  Wholesome- 
ness  of  animals  themselves,  of  their  environment,  of  those 
that  care  for  them,  market,  and  prepare  them,  will  alone 
produce  wholesome  food  and  physical  wholesomeness  through 
food. 

Food-animals  that  have  died,  instead  of  being  killed  while 
in  health,  are  unfit  food,  for  death  means  that  something  un- 
favorable to  living  interfered  with  the  life  of  such  animals. 
Only  tissue  that  could  live  is  fit  food  for  living  humanity. 
Animals  in  health,  killed  and  preserved  in  a  state  of  sound- 
ness without  preservatives  destructive  to  their  purpose  as 
human  food,  furnish  health-giving  animal  tissue  as  meats. 

Products  of  animal  life  also  serve  as  human  foods.  Their 
quality  is  no  less  significant  than  that  of  meats.  This  is  af- 
fected too  by  the  processes  of  living  of  the  animals  producing 
dairy  products.  Milk  is  safe  only  from  wholesome  animals. 
It  is  clean  only  as  it  is  kept  so.  The  living  conditions  and 
food  of  animals  determine  the  value  of  their  products  as  human 
foods.  Poor  animals  poorly  cared  for  or  poorly  fed  cannot 
but  supply  poor,  if  not  dangerous,  food. 

84  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


EFFECTS  OF  LIVING  -KrN  ANIMALS  AS  FOOD 

The  body  of  animals  is  greatly  affected  by  the  living  of 
the  animals.  The  quality  and  quantity  of  their  foods,  the 
air  they  breathe,  the  water  they  drink,  the  work  they  do,  the 
exposure  they  suffer,  the  health  they  have,  the  age  they  are, 
determine  the  desirability  of  animal  foods,  both  as  to  nutri- 
tion and  palatability. 

The  flesh  of  some  very  young  animals,  as  veal,  is  too  com- 
pact in  fiber  to  be  readily  separated,  so  is  not  easily  reached  by 
digestive  juices.  The  lack  of  fatty  tissue  in  these  increases 
this  compactness  of  fiber.  In  very  old  animals  fiber  is  tough- 
ened through  living,  and  fatty  tissue  has  usually  become  ex- 
cessive. For  these  reasons,  within  the  age-range  of  desirable 
animal  food  —  3  to  8  years  —  4  to  5  gives  the  best  food.  The 
substances  present  in  the  young  animal  may  also  differ  some- 
what from  those  of  the  older. 

The  location  of  the  different  parts  of  the  animal  used  for 
food  determines  their  exposure  and  exercise.  Neck  and  legs 
are  toughened  by  their  natural  use.  The  interior  of  the  ani- 
mal, especially  under  the  backbone  from  the  ribs  toward  the 
hind  legs,  is  tender,  because  protected  and  little  exercised. 
Outside  cuts  of  meat  are  2^  times  as  tough  as  those  from  the 
interior.    In  young  animals  this  difference  is  even  greater. 

Since  flavor  is  developed  by  exercise  of  muscle,  and  tender- 
ness by  lack  of  it,  the  choice  of  parts  even  within  the  same 
animal  is  always  somewhat  of  a  choice  between  flavor  and  ten- 
derness. Differences  of  texture  and  flavor  require  different 
treatment  to  secure  from  all  parts  of  animals  the  nourishment 
they  can  yield.  Expensive,  interior,  tender  cuts  of  meat  have 
less  flavor  ;  it  is  cooking  that  develops  flavor  in  these.  Inex- 
pensive, exterior,  tough  cuts  have  developed  flavor  through 
exercise,  but  cooking  must  be  relied  upon  to  make  them  tender. 

ANIMAL  LIFE  AND  ANIMAL  FOODS  85 


KINDS  OF  MEAT  -k^^TN  BEEF  —  VEAL  —  MUTTON  —  LAMB 


Foods  designated  as  meats  are  beef  and  veal,  mutton  and 
lamb,  pork,  fresh,  canned,  or  otherwise  preserved.  But  poultry, 
game,  fish,  eggs,  and  milk  are  also  animal  foods. 

Beef  is  about  }  water.  When  there  is  little  fat  there  is 
more  water.  Refuse  is  usually  -^  +.  Protein  ranges  from 
-J  to  ^  ;  fat  is  about  the  same  ;  mineral  matter  is  y^o""^*  Beei 
is  less  tender  than  mutton  or  pork  but  is  most  digestible,  due 
probably  somewhat  to  its  extractives. 

Veal  (young  beef)  contains,  like  all  young  animals,  less  fat 
than  those  more  mature,  so  less  than  beef  itself.  (What  is  the 
food-constituent  that  increases  with  the  growth  of  maturing  of 
plants  ?  When  old  plants  and  animals  are  eaten,  what  is  the 
function  of  the  constituents  that  increase  with  maturity  ?) 
Veal  is  less  digestible  than  beef  because  of  lack  of  flavor 
and  compactness  of  fiber. 

Mutton  contains  less  water  than  beef,  therefore  more  fat. 
It  averages  8%  less  water,  2%  less  protein,  and  i  as  much 
more  fat.  It  thus  supplies  more  energy.  Mutton  is  generally 
considered  as  digestible  as  beef.  But  to  those  to  whom  fat  is 
not  readily  digestible,  or  who  do  not  like  the  flavor  of  mutton, 
it  is  less  palatable.  Its  flavor  is  partly  due  to  its  fat  and  not 
wholly  to  its  extractives,  as  in  beef.  Mutton  contains  fewer 
extractives  than  beef.  This  fact  increases  its  value  when  ex- 
tractives must  be  avoided,  as  may  be  necessary  in  illness. 

Lamb  (young  mutton)  varies  from  mutton  as  veal  from  beef. 
The  leg  has  the  least  fat  and  most  protein.  The  chuck  re- 
verses this.  (What  has  it.?)  Lamb  is  more  palatable  than 
mutton,  due  to  more  delicate  flavor,  and  more  digestible,  due 
to  decreased  fat.    Extractives  increase  with  age  and  exercise. 

Preserved  meats  when  smoked  lose  no  nutrients.    Smoke  • 
not  only  preserves  but  adds  flavor  to  meats.    (See  p.  I49-) 

36  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


PORK  —  BACON  —  LARD 


KINDS  OF  MEAT 


Pork,  as  is  generally  known,  contains  more  fat  than  other 
meats,  so  less  water  (10-20%  less)  and  relatively  less  protein. 
Usually  in  pork,  especially  bacon,  there  is  somewhat  kss  waste 
than  in  other  meats.    Ham  is  lean  pork  ;  bacon  is  fat  pork. 

Bacon  is  about  |^fat.  It  contains  twice  as  much  fat  as  ham, 
three  times  as  much  as  other  meats,  and  only  i  less  than  but- 
ter. It  is  -iQ-^o  protein  and  |-|  fat.  Bacon  is  most  digesti- 
ble ;  only  butter  and  cream  rival  it  in  digestibility  among  fats. 

Lard  is  fat  from  pork.  Leaf -lard  is  from  the  fat  accumu- 
lated inside  the  lower  back  part  of  the  animal-body.  It  is  the 
best  lard.    Lard  is  combined  with  other  fats  in  artificial  lards. 

Prepared  meats,  as  sausages  and  minced  meats,  are  com- 
pounds of  mixed,  chopped  meats  of  different  kinds.  They  may 
contain  as  much  protein  and  more  fat  than  the  meats  naturally 
do.  But  their  composition  in  this  and  all  other  respects  de- 
pends upon  the  mixture.  When  any  vegetable  substances  are 
added,  this  is  expected  to  be  noted  on  the  label. 

Meats,  fresh,  preserved,  or  prepared,  differ  in  use  to  the  body 
according  to  their  composition  and  condition.  Difference  in 
flavor  is  somewhat  due  to  the  food  of  the  animal.  This,  as 
well  as  the  general  characteristics  of  meats,  may  therefore  be 
somewhat  controlled  by  the  feeding  during  the  early  growth  of 
the  animal.    Milk-fed  chickens  are  more  tender  than  others. 

When  animals  are  killed  their  flesh  is  tender,  soft,  juicy.  It 
immediately  stiffens,  toughens,  hardens.  This  is  called  rigor 
mortis  ;  it  passes.  The  flesh  is  then  again  soft  and  tender  and 
flavor  has  developed.  It  is  in  this  third  condition  that  meat  is 
usually  eaten.  But  as  this  change  is  due  to  the  onset  of  decom- 
position (in  which  lactic  acid  forms  and  softens  the  connective 
tissue,  as  would  mild  vinegar),  meat  is  eaten  more  promptly  after 
slaughtering  wherever  heat  requires  that  it  be  not  kept  long. 

ANIMAL  LIFE  AND  ANIMAL  FOODS  87 


MEAT  CUTTING 


GENERAL  CUTS 


In  general,  the  animal  is  cut  both  lengthwise  and  crosswise, 
therefore  into  four  quarters,  two  fore  and  two  hind.  The  fore 
and  hind  quarters  differ  in  some  respects  in  very  marked 
ways.  Inspection  of  the  diagrams  (p.  90)  and  of  meat  itself 
shows  this.  The  fact  that  the  form  of  the  skeleton  of  the  ani- 
mal distributes  the  bones  differently  through  the' different  parts 
of  the  animal,  and  the  further  fact  that  the  muscles  of  the 
animal  are  so  differently  used  in  different  parts,  make  the 
existing  differences  in  the  cuts  and  in  their  quality  a  natural 
consequence  of  these  facts.  Purchase  and  preparation  of  meat 
are  both  controlled  by  these  differences  in  the  cuts. 

Difference  in  cuts  of  meat  and  its  significance  should  be 
understood.  Such  knowledge  guides  buying  and  directs  cook- 
ing of  meat.  The  flesh  of  animals  above  and  toward  the 
back  is  finer  and  firmer  than  that  below  and  toward  the  front. 


Ham 


Pork 


Leg  of  lamb 
(see  p.  99) 

Fore  quarters  (weigh  in  beef  about  310  lb.)  are  cut  into : 

Ribs,  chuck,  neck,  shoulder,  shank,  brisket,  plate,  navel.    (See  p.  91.) 

Coarse,  inferior,  less  desirable.    Ribs  are  the  best  fore-quarter  cuts. 

In  general,  fore  quarters,  except  the  ribs,  are  used  in  the  main  for  stews 

and  soups,  canning  and  corning,  chopped  or  mince  meat. 
Hind  quarters  (weigh  in  beef  about  268  lb.)  are  cut  into : 
Loin,  rump,  round,  flank,  shank.    (See  p.  91.) 

Fine,  firm,  and  with  the  ribs  of  the  fore  quarters  are  the  best  cuts  of  meat. 
In  general,  hind  quarters  are  less  fat  and  used  as  steaks,  roasts,  stews,  soups. 
Fore  quarters  cost  from  5  to  25+  cents  a  pound.    Hind,  from  12  to  40. 
(The  quantity  of  each  as  well  as  the  quality  affects  this  range  in  price.) 
The  chuck,  plate,  brisket,  flank,  keep  less  well  than  do  other  cuts. 


BS 


FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


SPECIAL  PROBLEMS 


CARVING  MEAT 


In  Carving,  the  grain  of  the  meat,  that  is,  the  way  the 
fibers  run,  is  the  primary  fact  to  be  regarded.  Short  fibers 
are  more  tender  than  long  ones,  because  short  they  are  more 
fully  exposed  to  the  digestive  juices.  Cutting  fibers  across 
and  masticating  thoroughly  increase  digestibility  of  meat. 

Location  of  bones  also  requires  attention,  that  the  bones 
may  be  avoided  and  the  meat  loosened  from  them  in  carving. 
Hence  the  necessity  of  a  general  but  clear  idea  of  the  rela- 
tion of  the  cuts  of  meat  to  the  skeleton  and  the  muscles. 

In  all  animals  the  bones  and  muscles  are  in  similar  positions 
and  similar  in  character.  The  general  large  cuts  of  the  animal 
for  the  market  differ  as  in  the  diagrams  on  pp.  82,  88,  90.  The 
special  cuts  of  these  into  the  small  cuts  for  the  household  are 
similar.   The  steaks  of  beef  become  chops  or  cutlets,  thus  : 


Rib 


French 


Loin 


Round  bone 


Blade 


t  )  and 


Steaks  from  beef  are  the  cuts  relatively  free  from  bones  and  of  such  tex- 
ture as  to  be  palatable  when  cut  comparatively  thin  (I'^-ii 
cooked  quickly,  as  in  broiling  or  roasting.    (See  p.  92.) 

Roasts  are  larger  quantities  of  the  same  cuts  or  ribs  in  beef ;  in  mutton 
and  pork  they  are  legs  and  shoulders.    (See  p.  93.) 

Turn  the  next  page  into  a  roll  and  look  at  cuts  on  pp.  92-93,  with  cuts 
on  pp.  90-91.    Where  in  the  animal  do  you  find  these.-* 

See  steaks,  chops,  cutlets,  roasts  of  different  kinds  at  home  and  in  shops. 

Look  in  steaks  for  bones  j%^^^^^  I  T  V  O  ItlT^^'  and  modifi- 
cations of  these,  also  amount  of  fat.  Draw  the  steaks.  Name  each. 
Then  compare  with  book. 

Reread  pp.  85-86,  and  inspect  meat  and  muscles  of  animals  (diagram, 
p.  90),  then  decide  carving  and  indicate  with  lines  on  your  drawings. 


ANIMAL  LIFE  AND  ANIMAL  FOODS 


89 


ANIMAL  DIAGRAMS 
BEEF 


V    5    \       4     \ 


SKELETON  —  MUSCLES  —  CUTS 

SKELETON 


I       2 


1  —  neck  4  —  thick  or  hip  sirloin 

2  —  chuck  ribs  (6)  s,a  —  top  of  rump 

3  —  prime  ribs  (7)  and  loin       6a  —  aitchbone  or  rump  piece 


BEEF 


d  —  cartilage 

c  —  shoulder  blade 

d — cross  ribs 


MUSCLES 


I  —  head  2  —  neck  6  —  thick  sirloin  a  —  top  of  sirloin 

3  —  chuck  ribs  and  shoulder  blade  7-8  —  rump  piece  (in  New  York)  d  —  flank 

4  —  prime  ribs  (7)  8  —  aitchbone  c  —  plate 

5  —  loin  9  —  round  10  —  leg  d — brisket 

(Redrawn  from  Maria  Parloa's  "  Home  Economics,"  by  permission  of  The  Century  Co.) 


90 


FOOD  —  WHAT  tT  IS  AND  DOES 


MARKET  CUTS 
BEEF 


ANIMAL  DIAGRAMS 

CUTS 


SIDE  OF  BEEF 


NEW  YORK  CUTS 


a  —  spine 

b  —  suet 

c  —  kidney 

d — tenderloin  (thin) 

e  —  tenderloin  (thick) 

/ — round  (top  or  in- 
side) 

g — round  (best  part) 

h  —  sternum 

i  —  brisket  (thick 
end) 

/ — brisket  (thin  end) 
—  flank 


ANIMAL  LIFE  AND  ANIMAL  FOODS 


91 


CUTS  OF  MEAT 


STEAKS 


STEAK  — CUTS 


Method  of  cutting  sirloin  steaks 

a  —  3  round-bone  —  poorest 
b  —  3  flat-bone  —  better 
c  —  3  hip-bone  —  best 
(largest  tenderloin) 


Round-bone  steak 


Flat-bone  steak 


Hip-bone  steak  Delmonico  steak 

(Adapted  from  Maria  Parloa's  "  Home  Economics,"  by  permission  of  The  Century  Co.) 
92  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


ROASTS 


CUTS  OF  MEAT 


BONES  — MUSCLES 


Shows  changed  position  of  thigh-bone 
when  the  hind  quarter  of  the  animal  is 
hung :  /,  the  point  where  loin  is  sepa- 
rated from  hip  sirloin 


Shows   changed   position   of   muscleS 

when  hind  quarter  is  hung ;   i  is  the 

point  where  the  loin  is  separated  from 

the  hip  sirloin 


CARVING  ROASTS 


Round  of  beef 
(Lines  on  roasts  indicate  carving) 

e 


Roast  ribs  of  beef  Sirloin  or  porterhouse  roast 

ANIMAL  LIFE  AND  ANIMAL  FOODS  93 


COMPOSITION  OF  MEAT  -XfTr^  STUDY  OF  MEATS 


Meats  contain,  in  common  with  vegetables,  protein,  fat, 
mineral  matter,  and  water.  They  lack  carbohydrates,  the  chief 
constituent  of  starchy  vegetables.  Meats  contain  more  fat 
and  protein  than  vegetables.  It  is  for  \t^  protein  dJidfat  that 
meat  has  nutritive  significance  in  human  diet. 

In  vegetables,  carbohydrates  were  found  to  include  starch, 
sugar,  cellulose.  The  action  of  any  vegetable  in  the  human 
system  depends  upon  which  of  these  forms  of  carbohydrates 
is  present,  or  present  in  largest  quantity. 

Protein  also  is  complex.  Albumen,  gelatin,  nitrogenous 
extractives,  are  present  in  protein.  Though  these  are  all  ni- 
trogenous, they  are  differently  composed  and  serve  the  body 
differently.  Albumen  builds  tissue  ;  gelatin  spares  tissue,  but 
does  not  build  it ;  extractives  do  neither  —  they  stimulate. 
They  have  little,  if  any,  nutritive  value.  By  stimulating,  how- 
ever, they  cause  a  secretion  of  digestive  juices,  which  promotes 
digestion,  hence  nutrition,  when  the  stimulation  is  not  exces- 
sive. The  flavor  of  meat  due  to  extractives  increases  palata- 
bility.    Extracts  of  meat  contain  mainly  extractives. 

Albumen  is  coagulated  when  meat  is  cooked.  In  boiling 
it  rises  on  the  water  as  brown  particles.  These  are  highly 
nutritious,  therefore  should  not  be  skimmed  off.  The  solidi- 
fying of  the  liquid  in  which  meat  has  been  boiled  is  due  to 
the  gelatin.  When  this  is  present  in  the  diet  it  is  used  by  the 
body  and  thus  protects  body-tissues.  The  body  would  consume 
itself  in  living  if  deprived  of  all  protein  food.  Gelatin  is  a 
sparer  of  tissue  instead  of  a  builder.  It  is  called  a  tissue- 
sparer.    Veal  is  especially  rich  in  gelatin. 

When  would  you  choose  mutton  in  preference  to  beef  ?  Why  ?  When 
not?  Why?  In  what  respects  does  pork  differ  from  beef  and  mutton? 
Compare  young  and  old  animals ;  young  and  old  vegetables. 

94  FOOD—  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


REFUSE  — CHARACTERISTICS    -s7r\  MEATS  AS  PURCHASED 


The  composition  of  meats  is  in  general  the  same.  The  lo- 
cation of  different  parts  largely  determines  not  only  the  ten- 
derness but  also  the  quantity  of  bone.  Hence  the  imperative 
need  to  know  in  buying  meat  the  character  of  different  cuts 
and  the  tests  of  the  quality  of  meat.  Though  cuts  differ  some- 
what in  different  animals,  there  is  a  general  likeness  in  the 
form  and  structure  of  animals,  therefore  in  the  way  they  are 
cut.  The  cuts  of  beef  are  more  complex,  therefore  include  or 
suggest  those  of  other  animals.    (See  pp.  90-93.) 

The  amount  of  bone,  also  of  fat,  affects  the  actual  quantity 
of  nutriment  of  any  piece  of  meat,  as  it  is  lean  meat  that  fur- 
nishes the  protein  for  which  meat  is  primarily  valued  as  food. 
The  bones  and  trimmings  of  meat  are  not,  however,  without 
food  value.  Bones  are  valuable  for  soup-stock.  If  bones  and 
fat  are  paid  for  with  meat,  they  should  be  obtained  and  used. 
When  meat  is  trimmed,  then  weighed  and  the  trimmings  uti-  • 
lized  in  processes  of  wholesale  manufacture,  a  general  economy 
is  practiced  which  should  be  encouraged  in  all  communities. 

Cuts  of  meat  which  contain  much  bone  and  fat  should  be  less 
expensive.  The  range  of  price  of  meat  is  large,  also  exceed- 
ingly varying.  In  general,  3-5  <^  per  pound  is  an  average  range 
for  soup-meat,  25-401^  for  steak,  and  sometimes  $1  or  more 
a  pound  for  the  tenderloin  when  purchased  alone.  Though 
only  approximate  prices  can  be  quoted  (because  so  subject  to 
unstaple  trade  conditions),  the  relative  difference  between 
prices  varies  less,  because  this  depends  upon  the  difference  in 
the  meat  itself,  which  is  practically  a  permanent  difference. 

Texture  of  meat  should  be  firm,  but  not  long  fibers,  stringy,  or  dry. 
Fat  should  be  apparent  but  not  excessive,  firm,  and  creamy  white. 
Bones  should  not  be  exceedingly  large.  Color  should  be  red,  bright  almost 
immediately  upon  cutting,  though  inclined  to  bluish  red  as  cut. 

ANIMAL  LIFE  AND  ANIMAL  FOODS  95 


COOKING  OF  MEAT  -WP\  METHODS 


As  raw  meat  is  found  to  be  more  digestible  than  cooked, 
the  cooking  of  meat  is  clearly  for  other  purposes.  This  also 
suggests  that  the  rarer  cooked  meat  is,  probably  the  more  di- 
gestible. For  tender  meats  experiment  confirms  this  expecta- 
tion. Cooked  meat  is,  however,  generally  more  palatable  than 
uncooked.  As  95%  of  it  is  digested  when  cooked,  cooking 
is  considered  advisable.  Cooking  develops  flavor  ;  it  also  de- 
stroys bacteria  and  any  other  parasites  present.  Overcooking 
is  to  be  avoided,  as  this  hardens  fiber,  making  it  indigestible. 

In  vegetables,  cellulose  was  found  so  to  incase  the  nutrients 
as  to  need  to  be  broken  up  in  order  to  release  these.  In  meats, 
connective  tissue  holds  together  the  muscle  fibers  ;  in  it  are 
embedded  the  fat  particles.  As  cellulose  was  loosened  and 
softened  by  heat,  so  connective  tissue  by  means  of  heat  loosens 
its  hold  upon  the  muscle  fibers  and  the  fat.  The  connective 
tissue  itself  becomes  gelatin.    (See  pp.  94  and  98.) 

In  young  animals  connective  tissue  is  delicate  and  the 
muscle  fibers  short  and  tender.  With  age,  exercise,  expo- 
sure, both  muscle  fiber  and  connective  tissue  toughen  and 
harden.  They  then  require  more  prolonged  cooking.  When 
tender,  heat  acts  quickly  upon  them. 
Tender  meat  is  subjected  to  high  temperature  for  a  short  time. 
Tough  meat  requires  low  temperature  and  prolonged  cooking.    Why? 

To  retain  nutrients  in  meat,  dry  heat  is  used.  Large,  thick 
cuts  of  meat  are  seared  (juices  and  fat  brown  together  quickly 
on  outside).  When  the  inside  is  thus  incased  it  really  cooks 
in  the  water  of  its  own  composition,  rather  than  by  dry  heat 
as  did  the  outside.  The  albumen  that  has  coagulated  on  the 
outside  prevents  the  further  escape  of  the  meat-juices.  It  is 
such  cooking  that  makes  meat  most  nutritious,  unless  it  is 
very  tough.    Steaks  are  so  cooked. 

96  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


EFFECTS  -¥77N  COOKING  OF  MEAT 


All  meats  as  cooked  lose  some  weight.  This  loss  is,  how- 
ever, principally  water.  This  is  caused  by  the  hardening  of 
fiber  forcing  out  the  water.  (Fresh  meat  does  not  shrink  as 
much  as  unsound,  for  meat  as  it  undergoes  decomposition 
grows  liquid.)  By  boiling,  about  ^  the  weight  is  lost.  Of  this 
less  than  5  %  is  of  nutrients.  By  dry  heat  about  i  is  lost  as 
water,  while  the  loss  in  protein  is  very  slight.  Yet  more  of  the 
nutrients  actually  become  soluble  by  dry  heat  than  during  boil- 
ing. But  these  are  not  lost  if  gravies  and  sauces  are  made 
with  the  juices  and  drippings.  Cooked  meat  is  as  a  whole 
somewhat  less  soluble  than  uncooked.  In  so  far  as  it  is,  it  is 
decreased  in  nutriment,  for  food,  to  be  used  by  the  body,  must 
be  soluble  in  its  digestive  juices. 

Meat-juices  obtained  by  pressing  heated  round  steak  are 
nearly  12%  protein  and  extractives.  The  extractives  are  one 
half  as  much  as  the  protein.  But  since  no  method  of  cooking 
brings  out  the  nutrients  to  any  great  degree,  they  are  mostly 
in  the  meat,  even  stew-  and  soup-meat.  This  should  there- 
fore be  considered  a  food  of  value,  though  it  needs  to  be  so 
prepared  as  to  increase  its  palatability.  Meat-powder  is  for 
this  reason  more  nutritious  than  meat  extracts. 

To  extract  7tutrients  meat  is  cut  fine,  soaked  in  cold  water, 
and  cooked  at  low  temperature.  Near  the  end  of  this  process 
the  temperature  is  raised  to  the  boiling  point  for  a  short  time 
to  dissolve  the  connective  tissue.  High  temperature  hardens 
muscle  fibers  but  is  7ieeded  to  dissolve  connective  tissue.  Stews 
and  soups  are  so  made.  (In  retaining  nutrients  after  searing, 
the  temperature  is  lowered  to  prevent  hardening  of  the  fibers.) 
(See  p.  98.) 

Building,  sparing,  stimulatirig  effects  are  produced  by 
meat  foods, 

ANIMAL  LIFE  AND  ANIMAL  FOODS  97 


ANIMAL  LIFE 


MUSCLE  STRUCTURE 

MUSCLE  FIBERS  IN  MEAT 

Fiber - 


Longitudinal  section 


In  fibrils  Transverse  section 

(Reproduced  from  Maria  Parloa's  "  Home  Economics,"  by  permission  of  The  Century  Co.) 

Compare    Structure  of   Muscle    Fibers 

with   Plant  Structure,  p.  75. 
See  arrangement  of  muscles  in  anirpals, 

pp.  90  and  93. 
Cut  meat  lengthwise  and  crosswise. 
Decide  which  is  tougher  as  eaten. 
Note  location  of  fat  in  fiber  above. 
Note  Fat-Globules  in  Milk,  p.  114. 


FAT-GLOBULES 


# 


• 


-6 


Fat  cells 


Fat  ejnulsified 


a,  young  cells  beginning  to  store  fat 

b,  old  cell  filled  with  fat 


Fat  is  broken  up  thus  into  finely 
divided  particles  as  it  is  digested 
(After  Conn  and  Buddington) 


98 


FOOD —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


BIUTTON  — FOWL  — FISH  . 

SHOULDER  OF  MUTTON 


CARVING  CUTS 


Position  of 
shoulder-bone 


Muscles  of 
shoulder 


Method  of 
carving 


Method  of  carving 
the  under  part 


CARVING  FOWL 


Remove  wing  a-b 

Remove  leg  c-d 

Disjoint  thigh  at  e 

Remove  side-bone/-^ 

Slice  breast  h-i 

Remove  wish-bone  k-jl 

Remove  collar-bone  under  wing 

Open  at  m 

Disjoint  at  n 

{Letters  on  carving  cuts  throughout  book  indicate  cutting  in  the  order  of  the  letters') 
CARVING  FISH 


For  small  fish 


For  large  fish 


(Adapted  from  Maria  Parloa's  "  Home  Economics,"  by  permission  of  The  Century  Co.) 
ANIMAL  LIFE  AND  ANIMAL  FOODS  99 


CHICKEN —  GAiyLE  -fe^rN  '  SMALL  ANIMALS 


The  large  animals  from  which  most  marketed  meats  come 
belong  to  the  animal  family  of  mammals,  whose  young  are 
milk-fed.  The  cow's  milk  has  become  an  important  human 
food.  Besides  these  animals  others  are  used  for  food,  which 
are  smaller  :  some  domesticated,  others  wild  ; .  some  of  land, 
others  of  air.  The  egg  from  which  some  of  these  spring  also 
becomes  human  food.  It  contains  what  forms  the  animal  and 
furnishes  its  food  until  it  is  capable  of  living  on  food  supplied 
by  nature,  though  provided  through  the  care  of  the  parent. 

Chicken  is  the  most  generally  used  of  these  smaller  animals. 
It  furnishes  protein  food  that  is  delicate  and  digestible.  It  is 
relatively  free  from  fat.  As  chickens  grow  old  they  grow  fat 
and  tough,  necks  long  and  flesh  purplish.  The  character- 
istics desirable  in  chickens  used  for  food  are : 

Breast  plump  with  breast-bone  pliable  (not  broken) ;  flesh  evenly  compact 
(neither  hard  nor  flabby) ;  skin  moist,  smooth,  clear  (yellow  or  white) ; 
pin  feathers  show  youth ;  hairs,  age ;  legs  short,  thick  \feet  yellow,  soft. 

Broilers  are  young  and  tender.    Fowl  requires  boiling  to  be  palatable. 

Capons  are  larger  than  chickens,  of  finer  flavor,  and  tender  in  texture. 

Turkey  is  similar  to  chicken  but  with  more  fat.  Fat  is  even 
further  increased  in  ducks  and  geese.  Pigeons  when  wild  and 
old  are  tough  and  the  flesh  very  dry.  Squab  (tame,  young 
pigeon)  is  very  palatable.  Quail  and  partridge  are  similar  as 
foods.    Rabbits  and  venison  are  also  wild,  dark,  edible  meats. 

The  flesh  of  all  such  animals  is  dry,  with  less  red  blood, 
but  with  valuable  salts  and  usually  less  fat.  The  flavor  is  dis- 
tinctive. The  dark  meat  is  richest  in  nutrients ;  the  white 
requires  thorough  cooking.  The  breast  is  the  tenderest  part. 
*'  Legs  of  walkers  "  and  '*  wings  of  fliers  "  are  the  most  ex- 
ercised, so  toughest.  Storage  of  such  meats  for  long,  changes 
muscle  fibers  and  connective  tissue  ;  also  solubility  of  nutrients. 

100  FOOD—  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


FRESH  WATER  AND  SEA  -¥r?N  FISH 


Fish  is  similar  to  white  meats  such  as  veal  and  chicken,  but 
has  a  high  percentage  of  refuse  (|^-|)  and  is  from  ^-^  water. 
This  leaves  little  solid  in  any  given  weight,  but  as  fish  is  rela- 
tively low  in  cost,  it  is  not  expensive  protein  (building)  food.  It 
is  as  a  digestible  protein  food  that  it  is  valued.  Salts  of  fish  do 
not  vary  significantly  from  those  of  meats;  a$  p,  jof tto  claimed;. 

The  composition  of  fish  differs  rather  widely.  .Though,  this 
is  most  noticed  in  the  fat,  it  is  marked  in/tbe<iniount- (>f*.p'rc'- 
tein.  Protein  in  fish  is  partly  gelatin.  Fish  with  less  than  2% 
of  fat  (cod,  haddock,  whitefish)  are  most  digestible.  Those 
with  more  fat,  but  less  than  5  %  (mackerel,  halibut),  are  palat- 
able, as  are  also  those  with  even  more  than  5  %  (salmon,  her- 
ring, bluefish),  though  these  are  much  less  digestible.  The 
flavor  of  fish  is  affected  by  their  food  and  the  conditions  under 
which  they  live.  In  salting  and  preserving,  fish,  like  all  meats, 
lose  water,  so  have  higher  per  cent  of  nutrients  in  this  form. 

Only  when  fresh  can  fish  be  eaten  with  even  safety ;  only 
near  the  source  of  the  supply  is  fish  food  advisable.  No  food 
decomposes  more  quickly  or  dangerously.  Toxic  substances 
(ptomaines),  resulting  from  decay  changes,  are  produced  in~ 
stale  fish ;  these  act  as  poisons  in  the  human  system.  Fish 
should  always  be  kept  on  ice  and  invariably  used  promptly. 
When  fish  has  been  frozen  it  should  be  thawed  in  cold  water 
and  cooked  at  once.    It  keeps  even  less  well  than  when  fresh. 

Thorough  cooking  of  all  fish  is  imperative ;  the  danger 
from  parasites  is  thus  averted.  Such  sea  fish  as  sea-shad  re- 
quire cooking  by  a  method  that  permits  escape  of  oil.  After 
cooking,  all  fish  should  be  opaque,  not  clear.  This  does  not 
require  exceedingly  high  temperature.  Boiling  is,  however, 
less  desirable  than  dry  heat  of  temperature  even  a  little  below 
the  boiling  point  of  water,  but  sufficiently  continued. 

ANIMAL  LIFE  AND  ANIMAL  FOODS  101 


SHELL-FISH 


FISH  IN  SEASON 


Oysters  are  the  shell-fish  most  generally  used,  due  to  their 
palatability,  digestibility,  and  high  percentage  of  nutrients. 
China  and  Italy  cultivated  oysters  2000  years  ago.  There 
was  a  British  oyster  industry  in  50  B.C. 

It  is  heard  that  oysters  are  very  similar  in  nutrients  to  milk. 
'  iri  .quantity  they  are  (^^^  ''T''  g:^| :  ^"*T"^^'  H^) ;  also  in  con- 
.  tainting  some  of  all  f cod-constituents,  even  carbohydrates,  so 
•  '  rare  in- animal  foodc  (Its  form  in  oysters  is  glycogen,  the 
sugar  in  the  liver.)  But  the  proportion  of  the  different  food- 
constituents  is  widely  different.  (See  p.  103.)  Protein  in  oys- 
ters is  nearly  double  that  of  milk.    Compare  other  constituents. 

Though  oysters  are  more  digestible  raw,  they  are  not  wholly 
safe  thus.  When  fattened  in  shallow  water  or  kept  in  water, 
as  they  usually  are  while  in  market,  they  readily  absorb  any 
disease-germs  the  water  may  contain.  These  they  then  trans- 
mit. Such  ''  floating  "  of  oysters  gives  them  a  plumper  ap- 
pearance, but  the  smaller-appearing  oysters  may  be  safer. 
Oysters  slightly  cooked  are  digestible  and  safer.  Overcooked 
oysters  are  toughened  to  indigestibility. 

Shell-fish  in  general  (clams,  oysters,  scallops,  shrimps,  lob- 
sters) are  not  easily  digested  by  all  persons.  Clams  have  a 
tough  muscle  ;  crabs  and  lobster,  firm,  compact  fiber  that  re- 
quires thorough  mastication.  Shell-fish  must  always  be  fresh 
and  from  a  near  source  of  known  security  from  disease. 

In  general,  all-year  fish  have  little  fat,  as  also  those  available 
in  winter ;  spring  fish  have  more  ;  summer,  most.  Range  of 
cost  varies  similarly,  though  among  those  with  fat,  bluefish, 
mackerel,  herring,  eels,  are  cheap.  Dried  and  smoked  fish  are 
nutritious,  inexpensive,  and  safe.  Canned  fish  must  be  taken 
from  can  when  opened  and  used  promptly.  All  these  fish-foods 
build  tissue  and  do  not  stimulate  as  do  meats  with  extractives. 

102  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


COMPOSITION 


tmC 


FISH  FOOD 


Fish  are  available  as  follows  : 


All  year — Bass  (3-8  lb.),  clams,  cod  (3-20  lb.),  eels  {\-\  lb.),  flounder 
(^-4  lb.),  haddock  (5-8  lb.),  halibut,  lobster  (1-2 lb.),  pickerel  (1-4 lb.), 
sardines,  salt  and  smoked  fish.    (Range  in  cost,  6-2 5^?  per  lb.) 

Winter —  Oysters  (September-May),  smelts  (September-March),  white- 
fish.    (Range  in  cost,  10-25^.)    Oysters  higher. 

Spring — Herring,  shad,  trout.    (Cost,  25^-$!.)    Herring  cheaper. 

Summer — Bluefish  (June-October),  crabs,  mackerel  (April-October), 
perch,  salmon  (May-September),  swordfish  (June-September).  Range 
in  cost,  5-50^.    Bluefish  least  expensive. 

If  expense  needs  to  be  carefully  guarded,  what  effect  would 
this  have  in  the  choice  ?  Which  fish  could  be  depended  upon 
at  each  season  ?  Which  would  need  to  be  supplemented  by 
fatty  or  other  heat-giving  foods. 


Fish  and  Equivalent  Foods 

Compare  These 

Refuse 

Water 

%IN 

Protein 

Fat 

Carbohydrates 

Ash 

29.9 

58.5 

Cod  (fresh) 

II. I 

.2 

.8 

24.9 

40.2 

Cod  (salt) 

16. 

•4 

' 

18.5 

17.7 

61.9 

Halibut 

15-3 

4.4 

•9 

44.4 

19.2 

Herring  (smoked) 

20.5 

8.8 



7-4 

447 

40.4 

Mackerel 

10.2 

4.2 

7 

35-1 

50-7 

Perch 

12.8 

7 



•9 

50.1 

35-2 

Shad 

94 



71.2 

Shad  roe  (eggs) 

20.9 

3-8 

2.6 

1-5 

— 

63.5 

Salmon  (canned) 

21.8 

12. 1 

2.6 

5- 

53-6 

Sardines 

237 

12. 1 

— 

5-3 

80.8 

Clams 

10.6 

I.I 

5-2 

2-3 

52.4 

36.7 

Crabs 

7-9 

.9 

.6- 

1-5 

88.3 

Oysters 

6. 

1-3 

3-3 

I.I 

61.7 

30.7 

Lobsters 

5-9 

7 

.2 

.8 



87.1 

Milk 

3-3 

4. 

5- 

7 

II. 2 

65.5 

Eggs 

13-1 

9-3 

•9 

41.6 

43-7 

Chicken  (young) 

12.8 

1.4 

— 

7 

25.9 

47.1 

Chicken  (old) 

137 

12.3 

— 

7 

24.5 

54-2 

Veal  (fare) 

15.1 

6. 

7 

20.7 

56.2 

Veal  (hind) 

16.2 

6.6 

— 

.8 

(Rearranged  from  Farmers^  Btdletin  No.  142,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture) 


ANIMAL  LIFE  AND  ANIMAL  FOODS 


103 


EGG-CHARACTERISTICS 

Eggs  raw  are  usually  digested  in  the  intestines.  This  makes 
them  of  use  when  the  stomach  itself  is  not  in  condition  for 
use,  but  may  cause  diarrhea.  Eggs  serve  as  a  concentrated 
protein  food. 

The  sulphur  in  eggs,  which  blackens  the  spoon,  forms,  in 
union  with  other  salts  and  fat,  a  compound  fat  (lecithin)  in 
the  egg-yolk,  not  always  easily  digested  by  every  one.  When 
it  is  not,  the  egg-white  can,  and  should  still,  be  eaten  alone. 
But  as  egg-yolk  contains  not  only  more  fat  and  protein  than 
egg-white,  it  promotes  growth  and  is  to  be  eaten  when  pos- 
sible.   It  digests  raw  or  hard-boiled,  if  mixed  with  vinegar. 

Eggs  when  fresh  sink  in  cold  water.  As  eggs  decompose,  the  gas 
formed  makes  them  lighter  and  the  egg  is  thinner  in  constituency.  When 
fresh^  eggs  look  clear  through  the  center^  if  they  are  held  before  a 
candle-flame  in  a  dark  room.  Fresh  eggs  do  not  rattle  when  shaken. 
Their  shells  are  full.   Evaporation  with  standing  empties  them  somewhat. 

In  brine  (salt  2  oz.  — water  i  pt.)  eggs  /  day  old  sink;  eggs  j  days 
old  float  beneath  surface ;  those  14  days  old^  on  the  surface. 

For  Egg- Refrigeration  see  p.  220. 

LEgg,  milk,  seeds  (grains),  are  foods  for  young  animals  and  plants  "| 

Food  for  young  animals  or  plants  stores  for  them  their  tissue-  and  heat-supply  J 


104 


YOUNG  CHICKENS 


4®^ 


■■^-\ 


[     '  "y        '       V  /-^ ■"^.  '^'••u  ../'"  »*. 


'^L^!^ 


.-M.>^^- 


Vt-.M 


:^/;;' 


...-...^^"^'"'''''"'"•"'V 


.,^> 


\  i.' n  ^      k' 


4*U 


^-....^^ 


\ 


5' 


, ''    <.. 


IJes  S  U rt»«-«S-  /e.«».v  "i"^ 


"  These  chickens  are  but  a  few  days  old.    Older  chickens  have  relatively  larger  bodies 
and  longer  necks  and  legs  " 

Copyrighted  by  The  School  Arts  Publishing  Co.,  120  Boylston  Street,  Boston,  Massachusetts. 
Reproduced  from  "The  Good  Zoo  Drawing  Cards,"  by  permission  of  publishers 


lOS 


PRESERVATION  OF  EGGS  -K7N  CARE  — TEST 


Because  the  shell  of  the  tgg  is  porous,  the  water  of  the  egg 
evaporates  as  it  stands  exposed  to  the  air.  The  egg  becomes 
lighter ;  not  only  air  but  bacteria  can  and  do  enter  the  egg ; 
decomposition  results ;  gases  are  formed ;  the  egg  grows 
lighter  still.  The  readiness  with  which  eggs  decompose  makes 
it  important  to  move  them  with  such  care  as  not  to  break  the 
tissue  that  separates  the  white  and  yolk.  Eggs  need  also  to 
be  kept  free  from  contamination  in  handling,  keeping,  using. 
That  they  may  remain  fresh,  air  must  be  excluded.  (See  p.  io8.) 

Freshness  of  eggs  can  be  preserved  by  covering  the  shell 
with  paraffin  or  oil  or  embedding  them  (wit A  small  end  dozv7i)  in 
bran,  sawdust,  or  salt,  and  keeping  them  where  it  is  dark  and 
cool.  Experiment  stations  and  agricultural  colleges  furnish 
information  about  coatings  for  eggs,  also  sometimes  what  is 
popularly  called  ''  water-glass  "  for  protecting  eggs  from  air. 
Though  this  makes  possible  the  purchase  of  eggs  when  fresh 
and  cheap  for  later  use,  any  overkeeping  of  eggs  is  to  be 
avoided.  Cooking-eggs  need  freshness  no  less  than  those 
eaten  alone,  to  which  palatability  is  indispensable. 

Stored  eggs  deteriorate.  Dried  eggs  keep  better.  ''  Broken  " 
eggs  are  liquid  and  shell-less,  with  some  preservative  (borax 
or  formaldehyde)  that  conceals  putrefactive  odors  of  tmsafe 
and  tmsalable  eggs.  ''  Broken  "  eggs  form  a  commercial  prod- 
uct from  a  locality  where  eggs  are  plentiful,  but  too  distant  to  be 
transported  in  their  natural  state.  Such  eggs  should  never  be 
used  and  are  not,  except  as  food-ingredients  in  commercially 
manufactured  foods,  as  cakes.  Egg-substitutes,  such  as  gelatin 
egg-colored,  though  not  to  be  commended,  are  less  dangerous, 
if  good  gelatin  is  used.  **  Broken  "  eggs  are  disease-breeding. 
It  should  be  known,  where  home  preparation  of  food  is  not 
practiced,  that  they  are  not  being  used  in  any  foods  eaten. 

106  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


QUALITY —  USE 


EGG-PRODUCTION 


Natural  quality  of  eggs,  like  that  of  all  food,  depends  upon 
the  food  and  condition  of  living  under  which  they  are  pro- 
duced. The  flavor,  color,  and  keeping  quality  of  eggs  vary. 
Though  color  is  not  reliably  indicative  of  composition,  dark- 
shell  eggs  usually  have  larger  yolks,  so  are  richer  in  fat. 
White-shell  eggs  are  usually  more  delicate  in  flavor  and 
sometimes  for  this  reason  more  acceptable  to  invalids.  The 
flavor  of  all  eggs  is  better  in  the  spring;  it  is  at  all  times 
dependent  upon  the  food  of  the  fowls.  As  with  milk,  so  with 
eggs,  the  taste  and  odor  of  the  food  the  animal  consumes 
passes  to  its  product.  Hens  fed  little  nitrogen  have  been 
found  to  produce  many  eggs  but  with  a  maximum  of  water, 
and  keep  poorly.  Abundant  food  of  both  nitrogen  and  non- 
nitrogen  compounds  results  in  larger  eggs  that  keep  better. 

Production  of  eggs  cooperatively  has  in  some  communities 
insured  a  supply  of  freshly  laid  eggs.  It  is  claimed  that 
40  hens  in  an  outlaying  lot  40'  x  40'  cared  for  scientifically 
by  boys  have  supplied  a  city  neighborhood  and  provided  sup- 
port for  a  family.  Whatever  the  source  of  the  egg-supply  it 
needs  to  be  reliable  and  to  furnish  good  eggs  at  all  seasons. 
The  quality  of  eggs  is  no  less  important  than  that  of  meat  or 
milk.  Less  tender  cuts  of  superior  animals  may  be  cooked 
palatably ;  unfresh  eggs  cannot  be.  Skim-milk  from  health- 
ful cows  is  wholesome,  though  less  rich  than  whole  milk. 
Inferior  eggs  are  unpalatable  and  easily  become  disease- 
breeding  instead  of  health-giving. 

All  food  should  be  purchased  by  weight,  even  eggs.  They  range  in 
weight  per  dozen  from  i  +  lb.  to  if  +  lb.  (or  i-|  oz.  to  2i  oz.  per  egg\  One 
pound  of  steak  without  bone  serves  3  persons.  How  many  eggs  would 
equal  the  amount  eaten  by  each  ?  How  many  eggs  would  equal  in  pro- 
tein the  protein  in  i  lb.  beef  ?  Compare  this  number  with  that  which  equals 
it  in  weight  ?   Would  so  many  eggs  be  eaten  by  any  one  at  a  time  ? 

ANIMAL  LIFE  AND  ANIMAL  FOODS  107 


EGGS 


CONCENTRATED  FOODS 


\  Of  foods  with  little  waste  and  large  percentage  of  nutrients, 
,'  eggs,  milk,  bread,  are  the  most  important.  Though  they  are 
often  called  whole,  entire,  complete,  or  perfect  foods,  they  are 
rather  concentrated  foods,  universally  used  wherever  their 
expense  does  not  forbid.  Only  milk  ever  serves  alone  for 
human  food,  and  it  does  so  only  in  infancy  for  a' limited  period. 
But  eggs,  milk,  bread,  are  concentrated  foods  of  great  value. 
Eggs  supply  the  materials  from  which  chickens  form. 
Until  their  activity  begins,  their  need  is  for  water,  74%  ;  nitro- 
gen, 12%;  fat,  10%  ;  mineral  salts,  i  % .  Part  of  the  shell  may 
be  used  as  needed.  The  shell  is  porous  ;  the  air  enters  through 
it,  which  is  used  in  the  changes  occurring  as  the  chick  forms  in 
the  egg.  With  the  beginning  of  active  life  chickens  need,  and 
take  so  soon  as  they  emerge  from  the  shell,  the  meal-food  that 
gives  them  energy.  Like  meats,  eggs  have  no  carbohydrate, 
but  some  fat,  though  not  enough  to  sustain  human  activity 
with  egg-foods. 


%  IN 

Protein 

Fat 

Mineral  Salts 

Water 

Egg  whole  (without  shell) 

Egg-white 

Egg-yolk 

Egg-solids 

1  + 

i 

tJo 
T^o 

xio 

i  (shell) 

x 
ft 

Milk  has  carbohydrate  that  ^gg  lacks,  and  meat  has  extrac- 
tives. Meat  contains  the  products  of  decomposition  due  to 
activity  of  animals  ;  eggs  do  not.  Egg-white  contains  about 
the  amount  of  water  in  milk.  Egg-solids  are  chiefly  protein 
in  the  form  of  albumen  ;  this  is  most  digestible,  especially 
raw.  Egg-yolk  contains  more  fat  than  is  found  in  cream. 
(See  p.  114.)  Egg-salts,  in  both  white  and  yolk,  like  those 
of  milk,  are  of  value,  particularly  for  growing  children. 


108 


FOOD—  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


COMPOSITION  —  COOKING 


EGGS  AS  FOOD 


As  eggs  are  laid  the  shell  is  almost  full  of  material.  The 
egg-contents  do  not  thicken  for  nearly  tv/elve  hours.  It  is  bet- 
ter even  to  delay  their  use  for  twenty-four  hours  longer.  Only 
eggs  that  are  newly  laid  or  kept  fresh  are  fit  for  human  food. 

Eggs  are  used  not  only  as  an  article  of  diet,  that  is,  a 
food  at  a  meal,  but  also  largely  as  a  food-ingredient,  as  in 
flour-  and  other  food-mixtures.  They  add  nourishment  and 
lightness.  Compare  composition  of  eggs,  chicken,  veal,  fish, 
milk  (p.  103).  By  what  should  eggs  be  supplemented  ?  Choose 
specific  foods  from  table  on  p.  192.  What  foods  can  eggs  be 
substituted  for  ? 

Cooking  of  eggs  is  important,  as  it  affects  their  digestibility. 
Eggs,  like  meat,  lose  water  when  cooked ;  otherwise  they  do 
not  change  in  composition,  but  the  albumen  coagulates.  The 
protein  and  fat  of  egg  are  usually  entirely  assimilated.  Egg- 
yolk  cooked  either  soft  or  hard  is  equally  digestible  with  un- 
cooked.  Egg-white  uncooked  is  more  digestible  than  cooked. 

Digestibility  of  Cooked  Eggs 


Eggs  cooked  at  212°  F. 

for         3  min., 

after  5  hr., 

8+%  undigested 

Eggs          "           "    2I2<^F. 

"           5  min., 

"      5  hr., 

4  —  %  undigested 

Eggs        "        "   212°  F. 

"         20  min., 

"      5  hr., 

4-f-%  undigested 

Eggs        "        "    180°  F. 

"    5-10  min.. 

"      5  hr., 

fully  digested 

(Results  in  a  government  food-experiment)  Note  time  —  temperature  —  result 

Hard-boiled  eggs  require  thorough  mastication. 

For  adults  in  health  eggs  are  a  wholesome  repair  food. 
Though  the  yolk  gives  seven  times  the  heat-energy  of  the 
white,  eggs  need  to  be  combined  with  energy  foods.  If  eaten 
with^ bread  or  on  toast,  what  they  lack  is  added.  For  children 
and  invalids  they  giveV  besides  salts,  a  most  digestible  protein 
that  builds  advantageously  for  growth  and  recuperative  repair. 

ANIMAL  LIFE  AND  ANIMAL  FOODS  109 


MILK-SUPPLY  -¥T?N  SUBSTANTIAL  FOODS 


Foods  that  contain  in  appreciable  quantities  all  the  constit- 
uents that  sustain  life  are  substantial  factors  in  the  diet,  though 
none  are  so  balanced  in  their  constituents  as  to  be  a  desirable 
diet  alone.  Milk  is  more  nearly  so  for  children  than  other 
substantial  foods  are  for  any  one.  But  even  milk  when  used 
alone  in  infancy  requires  some  modification. 

The  purity  of  the  milk-supply  is  one  of  the  most  important 
of  the  food-problems  of  humanity.  Every  community  is  in 
need  of  pure  milk  in  abundance.  The  health  and  growth  of 
children  is  largely  dependent  upon  this.  Neglect  of  the  milk- 
supply  is  negligence  toward  life  itself.  Children  need  care 
taken  for  them  of  the  milk  they  are  to  drink ;  they  are  help- 
less themselves.    (See  Milk  Commissions,  p.  115.) 

Cleanliness  of  the  environment  of  milk-cows,  of  cows  them- 
selves, of  workers,  and  of  receptacles  is  an  absolute  requirement 
for  a  clean  milk-supply.  The  health  of  the  animals,  their  food, 
the  water  they  drink,  the  air  they  breathe,  all  affect  the  quality 
of  milk  they  give.  Mixed  milk  from  a  number  of  cows  is 
preferable  to  milk  from  one,  as  such  a  supply  minimizes  the 
probability  of  poor  milk,  also  of  concentration  of  any  unsus- 
pected danger.  Milk-cows  need  constant  intelligent  inspection 
and  care. 

Transportation  of  milk  is  to-day  almost  universal.  In  such 
dissemination  milk  needs  protection  from  dust  and  contami- 
nation, and  must  be  at  lowered  temperature  to  prevent  not 
only  souring  but  the  development  of  any  bacteria.  The  deliv- 
ery of  milk,  through  which  it  is  widely  distributed  to  family 
consumers,  requires  no  less  scientific  attention,  though  it  usu- 
ally receives  less.  Consumers,  too,  have  a  responsibility  beyond 
caring  for  the  milk  they  use,  in  the  complete  cleaning  of  milk- 
bottles  immediately  upon  emptying  them. 

110  FOOD  — WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


COMPOSITION  —  USE 


MILK  AS  FOOD 


In  infancy,  milk  is  the  food  of  the  child  until  its  ninth 
month.  During  its  first  year  a  child  takes  approximately  125 
gallons  (1000  lb.)  of  milk.  A  child  takes  ^  its  weight  in  food 
daily.  In  a  year  it  has  gained  13  lb.  Of  the  1000  lb.  of 
milk  1 30  lb.  are  milk-solids  (40  P —  40  F —  50  sugar),  which 
build  the  child-body  1 3  lb.,  supply  its  heat  and  energy  for  its 
activity.  For  every  pound  of  food  that  has  gone  into  building 
the  body,  9  lb.  have  been  used  in  living  the  life. 

With  childhood's  second  year  the  food-need  changes  to  one 
of  growing  variety  in  food.  Milk  continues  as  part  of  its  diet, 
but  a  decreasing  part,  until  in  adult  life  milk  becomes  principally 
a  food-ingredient.  If  in  adult  life  milk  is  used  as  a  beverage, 
it  must  be  regarded  as  a  substantial  factor  in  the  diet.  The 
foods  with  which  it  is  combined  must  supplement,  not  dupli- 
cate milk  in  composition,  or  the  body  will  be  overburdened  with 
unneeded  food.  In  illness,  when  activity  is  lessened,  milk  then 
often  fully  meets  the  body-need  for  sustenance  and  reenforce- 
ment  of  physical  resistance.  Milk  is  deficient  in  energy-giving 
power.    It  is  a  building  and  tissue-repair  food  in  liquid  form. 

In  made  foods  milk  as  an  ingredient  increases  the  nutritive 
value  and  palatability.  Used  as  a  cooking-liquid  in  substitution 
for  water,  it  increases  richness  and  fineness  of  texture. 

In  composition  milk  is  nearly  -^^  water  (87.1%).  It  con- 
tains 4%  protein,  4%  fat,  5%  sugar,  1%  mineral  matter.  In 
adult-diet  even  a  light  diet  or  narrow  ration  (that  is,  a  diet  in 
which  there  is  little  carbohydrate  in  proportion  to  protein)  con- 
tains 2\  times  as  much  carbohydrate  as  protein.  In  milk  the 
sugar  (carbohydrate)  is  only  \  more.  Were  adults  to  attempt 
to  live  on  milk  they  would  take  an  excess  of  water  (children 
need  more  proportionally)  and  more  protein  and  fat  than  the 
body  can  stand,  in  order  to  get  the  carbohydrate  it  needs. 

ANIMAL  LIFE  AND  ANIMAL  FOODS  111 


MILK  AS  CONSUMED  -4rV?S  DIGESTIBILITY 


The  composition  of  a  food  shows  the  quantities  of  its  con- 
stituents. Thus  is  disclosed  t\\Q possible  nutritive  value  of  food. 
How  these  constituents  act  in  the  human  digestive  tract  con- 
trols their  use  to  the  human  body ;  this  is  their  digestibility. 
Food  must  be  or  become  soluble  and  ultimately  somewhat 
liquefied  for  passage  through  the  digestive  tract  and  into  use 
by  body-tissues.  Though  milk  is  in  liquid  form  and  composed 
of  soluble  substances,  it  undergoes  a  number  of  changes  before 
it  comes  into  actual  use  to  the  body.  How  the  body  is  able 
to  effect  these  changes  determines  the  digestion  of  a  food. 
Though  the  general  process  of  digestion  is  alike  in  all  persons, 
all  have  not  the  same  degree  of  vitality  in  all  parts  of  the  diges- 
tive tract,  therefore  cannot  digest  equally  well  all  foods.  Milk 
is  one  of  the  most  digestible  of  foods  (95%  is  digested),  yet 
some  persons  do  not  digest  it  easily  or  quickly.   (See  p.  218.) 

Different  digestive  agencies  make  the  different  food- 
constituents  of  use  to  the  body.  Therefore  what  happens 
naturally  or  otherwise  to  change  food-constituents  must  be 
observed,  if  food  is  to  be  made  digestible.    (See  p.  113.) 

Milk-solids  (13%  in  all)  are  its  nutrients.  These  are  held 
in  solution  in  the  87%  of  water  in  milk.  But  in  the  stom- 
ach, milk  becomes  a  solid  food  that  must  be  broken  up  again. 
In  this  usually  lies  the  digestive  difBculty  whenever  it  exists. 
Protein  in  milk  is  in  two  forms,  casein  and  lact-albumin.  The 
latter  is  only  \  of  the  protein  ;  it  coagulates  with  prolonged 
heating. 

Casein  (3%  of  milk-solids)  becomes  a  solid  when  milk  sours, 
or  acid  or  rennet  is  added,  or  it  is  heated.  This  is  called  the 
curd.  The  liquid  left  is  the  whey ;  it  holds  the  sugar  and 
mineral  matter.  When  rennet  is  added  to  milk,  casein  coagu- 
lates and  changes ;  this  happens  in  the  stomach. 

112  FOOD—  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


AVAILABILITY  rJ/^TTN  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  MILK 


Milk  taken  slowly  into  the  stomach  usually  forms  curd 
in  small  particles,  so  is  digested  thoroughly.  Crackers  and 
crumbed  bread  in  milk  also  prevent  the  formation  of  a  large 
clot  and  thus  make  milk  more  digestible.  When  milk  is  used 
as  a  food-ingredient,  this  is  also  effected.  The  lime  salts  in 
milk  keep  the  casein  in  solution.  Lime-water  added  to  milk 
acts  similarly  in  preventing  an  indigestible  clot's  forming  in 
the  stomach.    Barley-water  in  milk  also  does  this. 

Protein  in  milk  forms  the  scum  when  milk  is  heated.  It  is 
the  change  in  the  protein  in  milk  that  makes  boiled  milk  less 
digestible  (when  it  is  so)  than  uncooked  milk.  Hutchinson, 
the  food-scientist,  claims  that  milk  heated  even  to  the  boiling 
point  for  30  min.  is  as  fully  digested  by  infants  as  raw  milk. 
Many  others  say  it  is  less  so.  But  to  insure  its  safety  when 
its  source  is  not  securely  sanitary,  it  is  heated  to  destroy  all 
germs  possible..    (See  pasteurized  and  certified  milk,  p.  118.) 

Fat  in  milk  (cream)  is  broken  up  into  fine  globules.  This 
facilitates  its  digestion.  (Fat  particles  are  visible  under  the 
microscope  ;  see  them  if  possible.)  Cream  and  butter  are  both 
digestible,  indeed  the  most  generally  digestible  fats.  Fat  is  the 
constituent  that  varies  most  in  milk.  Four  per  cent  is  the  aver- 
age ;  it  ranges  from  2  to  6%.  This  is  sometimes  a  natural 
difference  due  mainly  to  the  difference  in  feeding  cows  and 
the  breed.   Adulteration  may  also  alter  the  quantity  of  cream. 

Carbohydrate  in  milk  is  in  the  form  of  milk-sugar  (lactose). 
This  sugar  is  less  sweet  and  less  fermentable  than  other 
sugars  ;  it  is  therefore  in  less  danger  of  disturbing  digestion. 

Salts  of  milk  (chiefly  potash,  lime,  phosphates)  aid  in 
holding  the  solids  in  solution.  In  the  body  these  salts  build 
bone,  besides  furthering  digestion.  In  illness  involving  bone- 
deterioration  these  salts  act  as  repair  agents. 

ANIMAL  LIFE  AND  ANIMAL  FOODS  113 


FORMS  OF  MILK 


NATURAL  AND  OTHER 


Whole  milk  is  milk  as  it  is  produced.  As  milk  stands,  the 
cream  forms  by  the  fat  rising  to  the  top.  When  the  cream 
is  skimmed  off,  the  milk  left  is  known  as  skim-milk.  Besides 
these  three  natural  forms  of  sweet  milk  the  constituents  of 
milk  are  separated  differently  and  serve  different  but  common 
food-purposes.  The  fat  to  form  butter  is  taken  from  cream 
that  contains  from  9  to  46%  fat.  Butter  is  a  concentration 
of  milk-fat.  It  contains  an  average  of  86%  fat.  The  gov- 
ernment requires  that  it  have  at  least  82.5%  and  not  more 
than  16%  water.  The  curd  of  milk  is  separated,  giving  a  simi- 
lar concentration  of  protein  that  with  some  fat  forms  cheese. 

Milk  and  its  Products 


%IN 

Protein 

Fat 

Sugar 

Ash 

Water 

Whole  milk 

Skim-milk 

Buttermilk 

Condensed  milk 

Cream  (see  note  below)    .     .     . 

Butter 

Cheese  (Cheddar) 

Cheese  (full  cream)      .... 

3-3 
34 
3- 

8.8 

2.5 
I.I 

277 
25.9 

4- 

•3 

•5 

!-^ 
18.5 

85. 

36.8 

337 

5- 

54.1 
4.5 

4.1 
2.4 

7 

7 

7 

1.9 

•5 
3- 
4- 
3-8 

87. 

90-5 

91. 

26.9 

74. 

II. 

27.4 

34-2 

(From  Partner s*  Btdletin  No.  142,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture) 

Milk  weighs  about  i  lb.  per  pt. ;  \\  lb.  yield  18.5%  fat  in  cream  (i  lb.). 
How  much  fat  will  be  in  i  qt.  milk  .^  \  pt.  cream  ?  Compare  ratio  of 
fat  in  each  with  ratio  in  cost.  What  proportion  of  cost  is  left  for 
expense  of  separating  and  separate  delivery  ? 

Cream  removed  by  a  separator  is  38-46%  fat,  6  +  %  solids,  51  +%  water. 

(Globules  magnified  300  diameters) 


FAT  IN  MILK 


^^ 


b%^r^ 


Skim-milk 


Whole  milk 


Cream 


114 


FOOD —WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


SUGAR  —  FAT  -k^TN  ENERGY  FROM  MILK 


The  heat-energy  supply  from  milk  comes  mainly  from  its 
fat.  Milk  brings  only  sugar  as  a  carbohydrate.  The  body  needs 
starch  as  well  as  sugar.  Bread,  crackers,  corn  meal,  rice,  added 
to  milk,  increase  the  carbohydrate  and  bring  starch  into  the  diet. 

Milk  alone  digests  from  95  to  97%  when  taken  slowly.  In 
a  mixed  diet  (animal  and  vegetable  food)  it  digests  completely. 
It  furthers  the  digestion  of  other  foods  with  which  it  is  pre- 
pared or  eaten,  when  it  is  incorporated  in  the  diet,  not  added 
beyond  the  need  for  food.  Milk  taken  quickly  is  acted  upon 
as  a  whole  by  the  rennin.  The  casein  is  formed  into  a  large 
clot  that  the  digestive  juices  cannot  penetrate  quickly  or  fully. 

Cream  that  is  stiff  rather  than  simply  thick  is  probably 
adulterated  with  gelatin.  If  in  12-18  hours  cream  of  good 
quality  does  not  rise  to  about  -^^  of  the  volume  of  the  milk, 
that  milk  is  not  of  superior  quality.  Skim-milk  is  ^-i  %  fat ; 
whole  milk,  2-6%  ;  cream,  15-35%.  Cream  should  be  ^  fat 
as  purchased.  Butter  has  about  4  times  as  much  fat  as  cream 
(only  twice  that  of  "  separator  cream  ").  As  fat  is  laxative  in 
effect,  it  furthers  digestion  of  milk.  Skim-milk  is  therefore 
less  digestible,  except  as  a  food-ingredient  in  cooking ;  it  is 
nutritious  and  inexpensive. 

Compare  cost  of  butter  with  that  of  cream.  What  percentage  is  left 
for  work  in  butter-making  ?  Compare  whole  and  condensed  milk,  whole 
and  skim-milk.  (Note  especially  nutritive  value  of  skim-milk.)  Use  skim- 
milk  and  buttermilk.  The  flavor  of  the  latter  is  the  greatest  appreciable 
difference.  This  is  agreeable  to  many.  For  adults  it  is  usually  digestible. 
It  may  aid  digestion  through  the  agency  of  bacteria  present. 

All  communities  need  and  are  increasingly  establishing 
Mi/k  Commissions  to  insure  scientific  inspection  and  regula- 
tion of  all  milk  marketed. 

See  a  dairy  and  creamery  in  operation  if  possible. 

ANIMAL  LIFE  AND  ANIMAL  FOODS  115 


CHANGES  IN  MILK  ~&^  BACTERIAL 

Experience  shows  that  milk  undergoes  many  changes. 
Science  has  studied  these  and  finds  they  are  effected  by  the 
presence  of  bacteria.  Though  milk  has  been  experimentally 
obtained  without  any  bacteria,  it  is  not  without  bacteria  as  it 
comes  into  use.  Bacteria  usually  multiply  rapidly.  Though 
all  are  not  harmful,  any  bacteria  consumed  in  large  numbers 
undermine  health  and  gravely  affect  the  death-rate  of  infants. 

Drs.  Park  and  Holt  find,  of  infants  under  i  year,  during  3  mos.  in  summer : 
None  died  that  were  fed  human  milk  or  certified  milk  of  cows ; 

3%  died  of  those  fed  pasteurized  milk  (treated  to  reduce  bacteria) ; 

9%     "      ''       ''        ''    bottled  milk  (protected  thus  from  dairy) ; 
20%     "      "      "       "    condensed  milk  or  loose  milk  sold  open  in  bulk. 

Milk  feeds  germs.  Many  that  would  not  grow  in  water 
thrive  in  milk.  Some  produce  harmless  changes  in  milk  as 
souring.  Others  change  the  milk  itself  dangerously;  this 
happens  when  milk  is  kept  under  unsanitary  conditions.  A 
ferment  may  then  enter  it  which  produces  a  substance  (tyrotox- 
icon)  that  causes  serious,  even  fatal,  intestinal  disorders.  It  is 
this  that  happens  when  ptomaine  poisoning  occurs  from  cream, 
ice-cream,  cheese.  A  third  type  of  bacteria  are  themselves 
directly  disease-producing  and  may  grow  in  milk  without  chang- 
ing its  composition  significantly.  But  when  these  enter  the 
human  body  with  the  milk,  they  there  cause  detrimental  changes 
in  body-tissues.  All  bacteria  cannot  live  thus,  but  those  produc- 
ing many  human  diseases  can,  such  as  those  of  dysentery, 
cholera,  typhoid  and  scarlet  fevers,  diphtheria,  tuberculosis. 

a  b  c  d  e  f  g  h 

•^   #    y^    %    %    m    M- 

Disease-producing  Bacteria 

rtr,  pus-producing;  3,  pneumonia;  c^  tuberculosis;  d^  tetanus  (lockjaw).   (Conn  and 
Buddington)     e  and  /,  typhoid  bacilli.   (Pfeiffer)    g^  pus  ;   h^  dysentery.   (Sleiger) 

116  FOOD —WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


fug 


CARE  -^7r\  QUALITY  OF  MILK 


Souring  of  milk  is  produced  by  lactic-acid  bacteria.  During 
it  some  of  the  sugar  of  milk  (lactose)  is  converted  into  lactic 
acid.  (What  is  the  effect  of  acid  upon  milk  ?)  Bacteria  in 
living  take  what  they  need  for  food  by  breaking  up  the  sub- 
stances used.  The  products  resulting  from  this,  their  life- 
activity,  finally  make  their  own  growth  impossible,  though  not 
essentially  the  growth  of  other  bacteria.  Lactic-acid  bacteria 
ultimately  cease  to  grow  as  milk  sours.  Souring  then  goes  no 
further ;  the  sugar  that  is  then  unchanged  remains  as  sugar. 

Milk  sours  easily;  that  is,  lactic-acid  fermentation  occurs 
readily  when  milk  is  open  to  the  air  at  or  above  the  usual  house- 
temperature  (70°  F.).  Milk  that  does  not  sour  under  such  con- 
ditions within  a  few  hours  has  generally  had  some  chemical 
added  to  counteract  the  acidity  or  prevent  the  fermentation. 

Temperature  below  70°  F.  checks  souring,  as  it  is  unfavor- 
able to  bacterial  growth.  Milk  should  be  kept  on  ice  or  in  a 
cooled  atmosphere ;  it  should  be  cooled  immediately  after  a 
milking,  to  avoid  souring.  Sudden  change  of  temperature 
will  often  sour  milk  that  has  stood,  as  will  mixing  milk  of 
different  ages.  Sour  milk  is  of  value  in  cooking ;  is  advised 
as  a  drink  by  some  diet-specialists,  but  only  as  the  kinds  of 
bacteria  that  it  will  contain  are  scientifically  controlled. 

In  the  house,  as  in  the  dairy,  milk  must  be  kept  in  clean 
utensils,  covered  but  not  air-tight  (as  some  bacteria  grow  in  it 
only  in  the  absence  of  air),  and  at  low  temperature  in  an  at- 
mosphere free  from  odors,  as  milk  readily  absorbs  these.  It 
should  be  kept  in  an  isolated  compartment  in  a  refrigerator. 

a  b 

^A  ^  m  m^      »  4§  4^ 

Some  Bacteria  that  may  be  in  Milk 
«,  lactic  acid,  produce  souring ;  b^  produce  slimy  milk.    (Conn  and  Marshall) 

ANIMAL  LIFE  AND  ANIMAL  FOODS  117 


PRESERVATION  OF  MILK  -Kf7?\  PROTECTION 


Milk  needs  to  be  both  fresh  and  clean.  Its  purity  and 
freshness  may  both  be  destroyed  by  bacteria.  Hence  bacteria 
must  be  excluded  so  far  as  possible,  and  milk  must  be  kept 
under  conditions  that  discourage  bacterial  growth,  so  that  dis- 
ease and  death  to  infants  may  not  ensue.  If  milk-bottles  are 
not  effectively  sterilized  before  they  are  re-used,  they  can  breed 
disease  and  spread  it  by  contaminating  the  atmosphere  as  well 
as  by  carrying  into  milk  whatever  they  contain.  To  heat  milk 
sufficiently  (i8o°  F.)  to  destroy  the  bacteria  that  may  be  harm- 
ful changes  its  protein,  as  noted  earlier.  Since  it  has  not  been 
conclusively  proved  that  it  is  assuredly  as  digestible  for  chil- 
dren thus,  other  means  of  making  it  safe  have  been  sought. 

Certified  milk  is  milk  that  has  had  every  care  of  environ- 
ment, animals,  workers,  receptacles  in  its  production.  Ani- 
mals, workers,  and  milk  are  all  scientifically  examined.  The 
milk  is  then  bottled  in  sterile  bottles  with  sterile  covers.  Even 
milk  so  cared  for  is  not  germ-free,  but  it  has  only  a  few  thou- 
sand bacteria  where  other  milk  has  millions.  Only  with  the 
rarest  exceptions  has  certified  milk  been  found  to  contain 
disease-producing  bacteria.  It  costs  nearly  twice  what  is 
charged  for  ordinary  milk. 

Pasteurized  milk  has  been  evenly  heated  for  10-20  min. 
at  757°  F,,  at  which  temperature  the  bacterial  life  is  greatly 
reduced  and  milk  is  changed  less  than  when  boiled.  This  is 
accomplished  by  heating  milk  in  bottles  in  a  water-bath  at 
159°  F.,  so  as  to  avoid  high  direct  heat.  Formerly  pasteuriz- 
ing was  advocated  as  a  home  precaution,  then  scientifically 
somewhat  discouraged  for  a  while,  but  is  now  re-advised  as  a 
more  general  practice  for  the  milk-supply.  Such  milk  is  not 
so  palatable,  but  is  safer.  Yet  bacterial  spores  (see  p.  71)  are 
not  destroyed,  so  its  safety  is  not  completely  assured. 

lis  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


TEST  — FORMS         -^T?N  PRESERVATION  OF  BULK 


Milk  germ-free  is  the  need,  but  to  be  made  sterile  (germ- 
free)  would  require  a  degree  of  heat  which  changes  its  com- 
position and  digestibility  unfavorably.  Pasteurized  milk  and 
certified  milk,  as  noted,  are  safer  than  ordinary  raw  milk. 
Other  means  to  this  end  change  the  form  of  milk  somewhat. 

Milk-powder  is  mainly  milk-curd  dried  and  powdered  ;  it  is 
mixed  with  water  as  used.  Evaporated  milk  is  skim-milk  with 
the  water  evaporated ;  it  contains  the  solids  of  skim-milk. 
Its  principal  use  is  that  of  being  mixed  with  special  prepared 
flours.  Condensed  milk  has  had  most  of  the  water  evaporated, 
high  heat  applied  to  destroy  bacteria,  and  sugar  added.  Sugar 
acts  as  a  preservative,  but  it  renders  such  milk  unfit  for  use 
for  all  purposes  milk  usually  serves.  All  these  forms  of  pre- 
served milk  may  become  re-infected  with  bacteria  after  they 
are  opened  for  use.  Koumiss  is  fermented  milk  that  is  of 
such  digestibility  as  to  be  a  valuable  adult  invalid  food: 

Color  of  milk  is  not  essentially  indicative  of  quality.  Light- 
colored  milk  may  be  superior  to  rich-looking  milk,  as  the  latter 
may  be  artificially  colored ;  but  very  pale,  thin  milk,  even  if 
not  watered,  is  poor.  Sediment  in  milk  indicates  adulteration 
or  lack  of  cleanliness. 

Milk  that  shows  neglect  or  adulteration  should  be  referred 
to  the  Board  of  Health  or  Milk  Inspector  or  Commission. 

Butter  as  well  as  milk  and  cream  needs  to  be  fresh  and 
pure.  Pure  butter  boils  quietly  when  heated  in  a  spoon ; 
impure  does  not. 

Milk  furnishes  principally  protein  and  fat.  The  sugar  and 
mineral  salts  are  far  from  unimportant,  but  would  not  in  them- 
selves give  milk  the  significance  it  has  as  a  food.  The  sepa- 
rated fat  gives  cream  and  butter;  the  separated  protein  with 
some  fat  and  salts  gives  cheese. 

ANIMAL  LIFE  AND  ANIMAL  FOODS  119 


BUTTER  -K7N  CHARACTERISTICS 


Butter,  like  cream,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  churning, 
is  the  most  digestible  animal  fat.  Fat  gives  over  twice  the 
heat-energy  of  the  same  amount  of  starch  or  sugar  and  gives 
it  more  rapidly  than  starch.  But  only  one  fourth  or  less  of  the 
energy  food  of  the  body  can  come  from  fat.  Butter  is  the 
staple  diet-fat,  except  where  it  cannot  be  afforded. 

Some  substitutes  for  butter  are  wholesome,  and  if  sold  for 
what  they  are  and  are  worth  are  not  fraudulent  foods.  Neither 
the  digestion  nor  palatability  of  other  fats  fully  equals  that  of 
butter,  nor  do  they  promote  growth  as  it  does. 

All  fats  have  some  fixed  fatty  acids  and  some  volatile  ;  one 
of  the  latter  is  peculiar  to  butter.  When  other  fats  than  milk- 
fat  are  used  (as  beef -fat),  they  are  usually  flavored  with  some 
butter,  also  colored  to  resemble  it.  The  color  of  butter  is  not 
significant.  Much  butter  that  is  yellow  is  not  rich,  only  artifi- 
cially colored.  Colorless  unsalted  butter  is  the  most  delicate 
and  expensive.  It  requires  the  freshest  production,  as  salt  is  a 
preservative.  The  flavor  of  butter  is  due  to  the  effect  of  bacte- 
ria upon  cream  ;  as  the  bacteria  differ,  so  the  flavor.  Flavor  is 
increasingly  regulated  by  artificially  ''  ripening  "  cream  with 
bacteria  selected  to  produce  the  flavor  desired. 

Oleomargarine  or  butterine  is  clarified  beef-fat,  often  with  cottonseed- 
oil  too,  churned  in  milk.  It  lacks  casein  or  volatile  fatty  acids,  so  such 
characteristics  of  butter ;  also  is  without  its  aroma.  Oleomargarine  serves 
some  purposes  wholesomely  and  many  claim  palatably.  In  cooking  some 
think  it  indistinguishable,  except  in  cake  and  candy.  It  makes  cake  heavy 
when  used  alone ;  it  fails  to  remain  mixed  in  candy. 

Renovated  butter  is  rancid  (or  stale)  butter  remade  by  melting  and 
pouring  the  fat  off  the  casein  that  settles,  then  rechurning  the  fat.  Such 
butter  is  improved,  but  is  not  the  equivalent  of  fresh  butter.  Butter 
becomes  rancid  through  changes  in  the  casein  or  by  the  fats  decompos- 
ing.   Heating  fat  makes  it  less  digestible. 

120  FOOD  —  WHA  T  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


DAIRY-PRODUCTS  4^v7N  CHEESE 


Milk  and  its  derivatives  —  cream,  butter,  cheese  —  are  all 
dairy-products,  but  with  growing  specialization  cheese  has 
become  a  specific  and  elaborated  industry. 

Cheese  is  produced  from  milk  by  rennet  precipitating  the 
curd  that  carries  with  it  fat,  some  salts,  and  even  a  little 
sugar.  (Note  composition,  p.  114.)  Common  salt  is  added 
and  coloring  matter  is  usual.  The  curd  is  drained  of  the 
whey  and  ripened  by  the  action  of  bacteria.  The  flavor  de- 
sired is  now  produced  by  scientific  selection  of  these  ferments. 

Cottage  cheese  is  the  simplest.  It  is  the  curd,  often  co- 
agulated simply  by  heating,  mixed  with  cream  and  seasoned. 
Neufchatel  is  a  sweet-milk  cheese  coagulated  by  rennet  at 
high  temperature ;  it  is  made  especially  soft  and  smooth  by 
kneading.    Such  cheese  is  very  digestible. 

Some  cheese  contains  mold,  as  Roquefort.  It  is  goats'  and 
ewes'  milk  and  bread,  ripened  in  caves.  The  mold  distributes 
itself  through  the  cheese,  producing  its  distinctive  taste  and 
odor.  Other  cheese  is  flavored  through  some  fungus  growth 
penetrating  it ;  such  is  Stilton.  These  are  the  richer  kinds  of 
cheese  ;  they  are  less  generally  digestible. 

Between  these  extremes  are  many  very  palatable  and  nutri- 
tious forms  of  cheese,  variously  prepared  but  differing  mainly 
in  flavor  through  the  effect  upon  the  milk  of  the  bacteria  used. 
Among  these  are  Cheddar,  Edam,  Parmesan,  Swiss,  Sage. 

Adulteration  of  cheese  is  rarer  than  formerly.  It  consists 
in  use  of  skim-milk  and  substitution  of  less  expensive  fats 
than  that  of  milk.  The  resulting  food  called  ''  filled  "  cheese 
may  be  wholesome,  but  it  must  now  be  sold  for  what  it  is  and 
is  worth.    Harmless  coloring  matter  is  not  forbidden. 

Cheese  is  i  protein,  i  fat,  i  water ;  in  small  quantity  with 
other  food  is  an  aid  to  digestion  but  itself  digests  slowly. 

ANIMAL  LIFE  AND  ANIMAL  FOODS  121 


FOOD  OF  ANIMALS 
HAY  AND  FORAGE 


HAY  —  OATS 

ACREAGE  BY  STATES  — 1909 


OATS 


ACREAGE  BY  STATES  — 1909 


(From  the  Thirteenth  Census  of  the  United  States,  1910) 

122  FOOD— WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


WORK  —  FOOD 


HORSES  AND  OTHER  WORK-ANIMALS 


FARM  ANIMALS 


ON  FARMS  — 1910 


ALL  CATTLE 


ON  FARMS— 1910 


(From  the  Thirteenth  Census  of  the  United  States,  1910) 

CYCLE  OF  NATURE 


123 


FOOD-ANIMALS 

ALL  SHEEP 


MUTTON  —  PORK 

ON  FARMS  — 1910 


ALL  SWINE 


ON  FARMS  — 1910 


(From  the  Thirteenth  Census  of  the  United  States,  1910) 

124  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


cows  —  FOWLS 

DAIRY  COWS 


FOOD-ANIMALS 

ON  FARMS  — 1910 


ALL  FOWLS 


ON  FARMS  — 1910 


(From  the  Thirteenth  Census  of  the  United  States,  19 lo) 
CYCLE  OF  NATURE 


125 


SUMMARY  ON  ANIMAL  FOODS  IN  THE  DIET 

ANIMAL  FOODS 

Meat  and  Fish 
Chicken  and  Eggs 
Milk  —  BiUter —  Cheese 

All  build  tissue  and  bone  with  protein  and  mineral  salts  and 

supply  heat-energy  with  fats  chiefly. 
Animal  foods  are  all  high  priced,  though  all  are  not  equally  so. 

Some  fish  and  tougher  cuts  of  meat  are  less  expensive. 
Cooking  alters  animal  foods  significantly.    It  often  increases 

their  palatability  but  usually  lessens  their  digestibility. 
Digestibility  of  animal  foods  is  high  —  95%  and  more. 

Chicken  —  meats  —  eggs  —  fish  ^  Order  of  digestibility 
Butter  —  milk  —  cheese  J     from  left  to  right 

Time  of  digestion  is  often  long,  even  when  a  food  digests 
completely.  Foods  that  are  digested  in  the  intestine  are 
necessarily  slow  of  digestion,  because  it  takes  some  time 
for  them  even  to  reach  the  intestine.  Eggs  fail  to  excite 
a  flow  of  gastric  juice  and  must  pass  to  the  intestine 
before  they  are  digested.  Cheese  too  digests  there,  so  is 
delayed.  Eaten  regularly  and  in  small  quantities  with 
other  foods  it  promotes  their  digestion ;  but  eaten  as  a 
food  intermittently  it  digests  less  generally  experience 
shows,  though  laboratory  experiments  find  it  is  finally 
totally  soluble  in  the  digestive  juices.  It  has  long  been 
a  valued  work-food  of  Europe's  workers. 

Building  foods  are  advised  in  less  variety  for  the  individual  than 
vegetables,  because  if  any  do  not  digest,  they  leave  danger- 
ous waste  products  for  the  body  to  dispose  of.  Therefore 
those  that  prove  fully  available  should  be  the  choice  in 
even  maturity,  and  these  not  in  excess  of  the  body-need. 

126  FOOD —WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


DEVELOPMENT    OF   HUMANITY   AND   EVOLUTION   OP   HUMAN    POOD 

Pursuit  of  Food —  Invasion 
Production  of  Food — Invention 
Manufacture  of  Food — Industry 
Preparation  of  Food —  Science 

When  humanity  existed  as  one  living  group,  human  food 
consisted  of  roots,  seeds,  fruits.  As  the  number  of  individuals 
increased,  the  means  of  subsistence  became  too  limited. 
Humanity  then  began  to  separate  into  groups  that  scattered 
more  and  more  over  the  surface  of  the  earth  in  pursuit  of 
food.  Scientists  that  study  human  life  to  learn  what  it  was 
like  in  the  past,  find  that  the  ways  of  obtaining  subsistence 
so  differed  at  different  times  and  among  different  groups 
as  to  mark  somewhat  different  stages  in  the  development 
of  humanity  itself. 

Methods  of  production  thus  mark  periods  of  growth  of 
humanity  as  a  whole.  But  development  is  never  exactly  to- 
gether in  any  age  or  even  fully  so  in  any  place  at  any  time. 

Humanity  in  its  early  life  had  not  so  fully  emerged  from 
its  animal  ancestry  as  to  live  on  the  ground  as  it  now  does. 
Humankind  was  then  still  tree-dwellers,  ate  roots  and  fruits, 
and  began  to  speak  articulated  language.  The  next  stage  of 
development,  marking  changes  that  advance  human  life  some- 
what further,  finds  humankind  eating  fish  and  other  small 
animals,  having  discovered  fire,  making  weapons  of  wood  and 
stone  and  using  these  in  the  hunt  and  war. 

Neighboring  groups  contended  for  the  food-sources  and  for 
the  desirable  locations  for  dwelling  and  hunting.   They  warred 
with  one  another  for  the  actual  things 
2^1^  used  in  order  to  live,  grow,  develop. 
Then  even  cannibalism  was  practiced. 

LIVING  —  INDUSTRY—  COMMERCE—  SCIENCE  127 


PRIMITIVE  LIFE  ^^  MOVEMENT  IN  LIVING 

By  working  to  live,  creative  effort  developed.  No  longer  was 
the  sole  occupation  search  for  what  existed  which  would  sustain 
human  life.  Pursuit  of  sustenance  was  now  furthered  by  manu- 
facture of  means  to  work  with,  as  the  bow  and  arrow.  New 
uses  were  also  developed  for  what  humanity  then  had  found. 
Implements  of  stone  were  made  with  which  to  produce  as 
well  as  weapons  to  war,  to  prepare  food  as  well  as  to  hunt  it,  to 
protect  or  shelter  as  well  as  prospect  or  pursue  what  was  desired. 
Mats  and  baskets  were  woven.    The  art  of  weaving  was  born. 

As  human  living  advanced  further,  pottery  was  invented, 
animals  were  domesticated,  and  other  animal  products  besides 
meat  began  to  be  used.  Milk  became  a  food,  furs  were  used 
to  protect ;  agriculture  developed  ;  corn  was  cultivated  in  the 
west  of  the  world ;  in  the  east  all  other  grains  were  grown. 

The  east  tended  to  increased  domestication  of  animals,  and 
the  west  to  cultivation  of  plants  that  nourish.  This  required 
irrigation  artificially  produced.  Building  began  with  stones  and 
bricks  sun-dried.  The  caring  for  animals  led  to  formation  of 
herds  and  pastoral  life  among  people.  Thus  more  nourishment 
was  needed  for  both  animals  and  humanity.  To  produce  it  in- 
creased agriculture.  Life  became  less  wandering  and  warring 
and  more  sedentary  and  varied  in  manner  of  living.  Cannibal- 
ism began  to  disappear.  The  energy  spent  earlier  in  mvasion 
in  search  of  supplies  was  passing  into  inventiofi  that  aided  in 
supplying  living-needs  from  the  resources  of  the  environment. 

Iron  ore  began  to  be  melted  and  formed  for  uses  it  could 
serve.  The  plow  and  other  implements,  as  the  axe,  spade, 
hoe,  made  less  formidable  the  cultivation  of  the  soil.  Farming 
flourished  as  was  impossible  when  humanity  was  less  well 
equipped.  This  gave  a  renewed  impulse  to  agriculture.  Al- 
phabetical writing  had  its  origin  at  this  stage  of  human  advance. 

128  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


GROWTH  IN  POWER 


Jf% 


EVOLUTION  OP  CIVILIZATION 


TAe  quest  for  food  led  to  the  conquest  of  nature,  not  to 
despoil  nature,  but  to  work  with  her  to  increase  her  fertiHty 
that  she  might  produce  what  humanity  needed  to  Uve,  grow, 
reproduce,  and  develop.  Such  interworking  of  humanity  and 
nature  to  produce  enough  to  meet  an  increasing  need  for  food 
still  goes  on.  Taking  front  nature,  then  from  one  another 
disappears  before  working  with  stature  to  provide  for  all. 
Growth  in  experience  has  resulted  not  only  iii  expanding 
food  and  shelter  but  in  exte7iding  hitman  ifitelligence , 

As  human  intelligence  has  increased  it  has  worked  upon  the 
problems  presented  by  living.  It  has  opened  new  opportunities 
to  provide  for  and  expand  human  life.  Its  progress  has,  how- 
ever, not  been  an  even  advance,  nor  have  all  steps  been  forward. 

Development  of  invention  in  the  use  of  iron  for  imple- 
ments, as  aids  to  more  effective  work,  gave  an  impulse  to 
mental  extension  as  well  as  control  of  work.  Tools  for  build- 
ing extended  construction ;  wagons  for  travel  and  ships  for 
sailing  made  exploration  more  possible  as  well  as  products 
more  varied.  As  metals  were  found  to  be  malleable,  so  could 
be  wrought,  the  mechanical  arts  were  born.  Manufacture  of 
arms  and  wall-protection  of  cities  followed.  Architecture  arose. 

And  with  alphabetical  language  now  at  command  an  inter- 
pretation and  record  of  life  began  to  take  form  in  mythology, 
poetry,  chronicle.  The  ideal  imaginings,  the  emotions,  the 
events,  of  human  living  were  expressed.  These  products  of 
writing  appeared  in  the  Orient  and  the  countries  encircling  the 
Mediterranean  sea  —  Egypt,  Greece,  Italy.  In  this  human- 
ity was  giving  new  expression  to  its  interests,  while  growing  in 
facility  in  meeting  the  needs  of  physical  living.  Civilization 
superseded  earlier  stages  of  living ;  it  permeated  Europe  and 
spread.   Humanism  is  the  new  stage  of  race-life  approaching. 

LIVING  --  INDUSTRY—  COMMERCE—  SCIENCE  129 


LIVING  —  INDUSTRY 


COMMERCE  —  SCIENCE 


Development  of  Humanity  —  Evolution  of  Food  127 

Primitive  Life  —  Growth  —  Civilization  1 28-9 

Industry  —  Commerce  —  Science  1 30-1 

Food-Sources — Production — Preparation  —  Practices  1 3  2-3 

Food-Supply  —  Nourishment  —  Nurture  —  Health  1 34-5 

Clean  Food — Cleanliness — Wholesomeness — Purity  136-7 

Adulteration  —  Food  Law  —  Food-Labels  1 38-9 

Selling — Advertisement — Understanding —  Saving  140-1 

Wholesome  Foods  —  Scientific  Modification  of  Food  142-3 

Canned  Food  —  Manufactured  Products  144-S 

Buying  —  Economy  —  Investigation  —  Testing  1 46-7 

Artificial  Foods  —  Chemicals  in  Food  148-9 

Food- Regulation  —  Food-Deterioration  1 5  o- 1 

Sterilization  —  Preservation  —  Refrigeration  152-5 

Food-Cost  —  Markets  —  Exchange  —  Consumption  1 56-9 


Production  —  Manufacture  —  Distribution  —  Consumption 

are  interwoven  now  with 
Nature,    Invention,    Industry,    Transportation,    Commerce, 

Science   and   with    Humanity  as  workers    as  well   as 

consumers. 
The  work  of  providing  food,  together  with  the  nourishment  it 

necessitates,  constitutes  many  modern  problems  of  trade 

and  labor  as  well  as  human  nourishment  and  health. 

These  are  more  and  more  coming  under  community 

consideration.     So  food  as  it  is  prepared  together  for 

all  is  becoming  a  concern  of  all. 

130  FOOD-SUPPLY— HUMAN  NEED-  AND  WORK-CYCLE 


INDUSTRY  —  COMMERCE  ^*^  SCIENCE 

Production  of  food  on  a  large  scale  has  been  carried  on  for 
some  centuries,  but  raising  food  for  the  use  of  others  to  be 
sold  them  for  gain  is  not  so  old.  With  this  has  developed 
food-transportation,  storage,  commerce.  The  early  search  and 
strife  for  food  and  the  later  producing  of  it  have  passed  for 
most  of  humanity  into  simply  purchasing  food. 

Food-production  for  commercial  distribution  occupies  many 
workers.  Food  industry  that  manufactures  such  foods  as  flour 
and  sugar,  and  prepares  such  as  cereals  and  canned  foods  of 
all  kinds  also  engages  many  workers,  as  do  too,  all  the  proc- 
esses of  handling  food  not  only  in  transportation  but  com- 
mercially in  markets. 

Science  as  it  is  known  to-day  has  been  developed  within  this 
century.  For  not  more  than  fifty  years  has  it  been  even  some- 
what generally  understood  and  only  now  at  all  popularly  known. 
Eons  of  life,  ages  of  human  development,  and  centuries  of 
mental  effort  to  understand  the  workings  of  nature  preceded 
the  scientific  enlightenment  of  this  age.  Rapid  movement  is 
now  everywhere  made  to  use  in  living  what  is  being  learned. 
This  is  leading  to  changes  that  alter  human  life  and  affect 
the  ways  of  living. 

The  study  of  food  is  one  of  the  most  recent,  also  most  far- 
reaching  effects  of  science  upon  human  health.  Human  growth 
can  be  furthered  by  understanding  living.  The  reproduction 
of  nature's  products  and  effects  is  more  and  more  attempted 
artificially  and  more  and  more  nearly  approached,  yet  the  re- 
action of  the  human  body  to  artificial  foods  is  not  usually  the 
same  as  to  natural.  This  requires  that  the  difference  between 
the  two  be  further  studied  and  eliminated,  or  the  use  of  natu- 
ral foods  be  continued,  if  health,  vigor,  growth  are  to  be  pro- 
moted by  food. 

CIRCLE  OF  HUMAN  LIFE  131 


FOOD-SOURCES  4^y^  PRODUCTION 

Where  food  is  to  be  found  and  how  it  is  obtained  has,  it 
was  seen,  changed  from  age  to  age.  Plrst,  it  was  only  where 
nature  brought  it  forth  spontaneously ;  such  products  are 
called  indigenous.  In  early  times  those  foods  were  used  that 
were  found  growing  wherever  food  was  needed.  Only  primi- 
tive life  knew  so  simple  a  method  of  nourishing  humanity. 
Food  was  then  limited  to  what  was  growing  and  as  it  grew. 

Later  humanity  ate  what  it  could  grow  wherever  it  lived. 
Food  was  then  limited  to  what  could  be  produced  at  hand. 
Since  only  what  would  grow  naturally  was  then  available,  bar- 
renness or  fertility  of  soil  determined  what  diet  would  be. 

As  humanity  passed  into  more  peaceable  living  and  found  it- 
self living  more  fully  over  the  surface  of  the  earth  in  all  climes 
a'nd  growing  into  interworking  communication,  it  learned 
what  grew  everywhere.  It  has  brought  what  grows  from 
where  it  grows  best  to  where  it  can  be  most  used.  This  has 
extended  transportation  of  food,  with  consequent  storage  of  it. 
Variety  in  diet  has  thus  been  increased  ;  freshness  of  food  has 
been  greatly  decreased.  More  persons  have  become  engaged 
in  handling  food  than  in  producing  it.  Food  has  thus  entered 
into  the  realm  of  profit  as  well  as  nourishment  of  humanity. 

Science,  in  its  study  of  food  and  feeding,  first  looked  at  what 
happened  with  animals  and  tried  to  see  what  could  be  done 
further  for  them.  Recently  science  has  been  investigating  the 
food-needs  and  food-possibilities  for  humanity.  How  the  con- 
ditions that  produce  fertility  can  be  effected  where  barrenness 
prevails  is  increasingly  studied.  As  this  is  understood,  it  is  used 
to  bring  more  abundant  and  more  varied  food  from  the  earth 
wherever  there  is  human  life  in  need  of  it.  Science-direction 
and  human  work  can  now  usually  produce  variety  in  food  at 
hand.    It  is  thus  that  freshness  of  food  is  insured. 

132  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


PREPARATION  t^^j  FOOD  PRACTICES 

Preparation  of  food  has  developed  as  has  production.  Like 
food-production,  food-preparation  is  now  studied.  The  methods 
of  early  times  and  those  of  every  land  are  now  more  generally 
known  and  practiced.  Many  methods  arising  where  a  food  so 
grows  as  to  be  a  chief  article  of  diet  are  carried  with  it  as  the 
people  that  first  used  it  move  from  place  to  place,  or  as  it  is  trans- 
ported or  more  extensively  cultivated,  so  more  widely  eaten. 

Most  early  methods  were  developed  by  life-experience  in  pre- 
paring food.  These  are  now  found  by  scientific  experiment  to 
be  ways  of  treating  food-materials  which  make  food  not  only 
more  palatable  but  also  usually  more  digestible  and  nutritious. 
Cooking  —  the  application  of  dry  or  moist  heat  to  food  — 
changes  different  foods  differently.  Heat  tends  to  break  up 
and  render  tender  vegetable  fiber,  whereas  it  toughens  animal. 
Prolonged  slow  cooking  of  grains  and  rapid  slight  cooking  of 
tender  meats  have  always  been  practiced,  because  these  foods 
when  thus  cooked  seemed  better.   Science  has  now  learned  why. 

Much  that  science  has  learned  about  the  exact  effect  of  dif- 
ferent methods  of  treating  different  foods,  together  with  the 
tendency  toward  factory  production  of  all  products  needed  for 
human  consumption,  has  led  to  extensive  preparation  of  food 
outside  of  the  home.  As  the  storage  of  food  arose  with  the 
general  transportation  of  it,  so  the  preservation  of  food  has 
arisen,  likewise  the  practice  of  factory  preparation.  The  advan- 
tage claimed  for  transported  food  has  been  variety  of  food  every- 
where at  all  seasons  with  less  labor  for  the  consumer  ;  this  is 
claimed  also  for  factory-prepared  food.  The  disadvantage  of  the 
former,  namely  decreased  freshness,  is  the  disadvantage  of  the 
latter.   The  distinct  danger  of  each  will  be  discussed  elsewhere. 

Food-transportation  makes  more  food-traders  than  produ- 
cers.   Factory  preparation  decreases  the  preparers  of  food. 

LIVING—  INDUSTRY—  COMMERCE  133 


FOOD-SUPPLY  ^^^  NOURISHMENT 

Home  gardens  and  home  cooking  were  once  usual.  They 
are  now  less  common.  Both  are  to  be  encouraged  to  provide 
fresh  and  wholesome  food.  Only  in  the  country  is  the  food- 
supply  of  the  family  now  within  the  direct  control  of  the  home. 
Even  there  some  foods  come  partially  prepared.  But  selection 
of  food  still  remains  a  home  occupation.  All  need  therefore 
to  know  in  what  condition  food  needs  to  be. 

The  industrial  arms  of  society  now  bring  much  of  the  food 
a  family  eats  from  the  farm  and  market  through  the  factory 
and  shop.  What  they  bring  and  how  they  bring  it  is  of  im- 
portance to  all ;  all  are  consumers.  Many  simply  market  food 
that  others  produce.    More  producers  are  needed. 

In  school  all  are  now  learning  to  be  more  fully  self -helpful 
in  all  ways.  How  to  care  for  one's  self  in  living  and  how  to 
produce  what  is  needed  for  life  are  beginning  to  be  taught 
everywhere.  Much  can  now  be  known  about  human  needs 
and  how  different  communities  meet  these.  Knowing  what 
food  is  and  does  is  an  important  part  of  such  learning,  be- 
cause it  is  thus  one  knows  what  should  be  eaten  and  where 
and  how  to  obtain  it,  prepare  it,  and  use  it. 

Humanity  is  discovering  what  grows  everywhere  in  the 
earth,  water,  air.  What  humanity  can  use  for  food  is  being 
eaten.  What  different  foods  do  when  eaten  is  being  studied 
by  science  and  learned  by  humanity. 

A  seed  buried  in  the  earth  becomes  a  plant.  Something  has 
happened  to  that  seed  ;  usually  some  one  has  taken  some  care 
of  it.  Many  plants  are  eaten  as  food.  Something  further  then 
happens  ;  the  plant  becomes  food-energy  and  furthers  life  in 
other  ways.  The  adult  that  eats  suitable  food  can  work  and 
be  strong. 

Humanity  could  not  live  if  it  did  not  eat. 

134  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


Reproduced  by  courtesy  of  J.  M.  Dent  and  Company 
AN  ITALIAN  KITCHEN 


From  Janet  Ross's  "  Leaves  from  a  Tuscan  Kitchen." 


NURTURE  ^^^  HUMAN  HEALTH 

Health  is  usually  assumed  as  the  natural  state  of  humanity. 
In  reality  human  health  comes  only  by  humanity's  working 
with  nature  to  keep  the  natural  processes  of  physical  living 
effectively  active.  To  do  this  one  must  know  what  these  are 
and  what  changes  them.  The  use  of  such  knowledge  in  liv- 
ing is  health-nurture.  Caring  for  life  so  it  is  wholesome  and 
nourishing  the  body  so  it  is  well  secure  health  to  humanity. 

Wholesome  food  and  pure  water  and  air  ;  alternate  rest  and 
exercise  ;  sanitary  environment  and  hygienic  habits  ;  health- 
ful clothing  and  housing ;  developing  occupation  and  elevating 
recreation  ;  human  intercourse  and  community  interests, — are 
all  factors  in  producing  enduring  health.  Proper  adjustment 
of  these  to  each  other  and  for  each  person's  needs  is  the 
problem  of  procuring  health.  Usually  this  is  done  without 
much  consciousness  that  health  demands  attention.  But  if 
neglected,  disastrous  results  ensue.  No  one  is  especially  aware 
of  health  when  he  has  it,  but  when  gone  it  becomes  one's  chief 
concern.  Time  is  saved  and  strength  insured  by  making 
health-giving  practices  the  habits  of  the  body. 

In  order  that  there  may  be  health,  the  supplies  to  the  body 
—  food,  water,  air  —  must  be  provided  through  informed 
intelligence.  To  learn  what  food  is  and  does  leads  into  learn- 
ing how  the  body  lives,  and  what  it  needs  in  order  to  live  in 
health  and  grow  into  maturing  power.  Only  thus  can  the 
person  lead  a  developing  and  fully  useful  life. 

Nature  supplies  heat,  light,  air,  water,  as  it  does  food.  But 
these  all  need  adjustment  to  human  life  if  they  are  to  further 
rather  than  destroy  it.  Humanity  survives  by  adjusting  its 
environment  to  its  needs.  Freeing  surroundings  of  ill  influ- 
ences and  reenforcing  all  health-giving  agencies  make  an 
environment  of  health-aids  in  which  humanity  can  develop. 

LIVING  —  INDUSTRY—  COMMERCE  135 


CLEAN  FOOD  ^^^  CLEANLINESS 

How  foods  are  grown,  handled,  kept,  prepared,  used, 
served,  affect  human  activity,  health,  growth.  Different  foods 
need  different  conditions.  But  all  need  special  care  in  pro- 
duction and  preservation  until  used.  All  require  complete 
cleanliness  as  kept  and  handled  from  garden  to  table. 

A  market  that  looks  and  is  clean  at  all  times  is  essential 
for  health.  Protection  of  food  from  dust  of  streets,  from 
refuse  of  all  kinds,  from  insects  (as  flies  and  ants),  from  ver- 
min (as  mice  and  rats),  and  from  diseased  persons  on  farm,  in 
market,  at  home,  is  a  health-necessity.  Dust,  refuse,  insects, 
vermin,  ill  persons,  are  disease-carriers. 

Exposure  to  disease  usually  weakens  general  health  even 
when  it  does  not  cause  definite  disease.  Resisting  disease- 
influences  requires  of  the  body  unnecessary  effort.  This  is 
added  to  that  of  living  and  working.  Contaminated  food  has 
been  in  contact  with  disease-sources  ;  it  is  one  of  the  greatest 
dangers  to  life.  Unsound  food  is  food  that  is  itself  in  un- 
wholesome condition ;  it  is  a  health-menace.  Food  is  eaten 
to  sustain  life  and  promote  living-activity.  Its  condition  needs 
to  be  such  that  it  can  be  a  health-help,  a  strength-promoter, 
an  energy-giver,  and  in  childhood  and  youth  also  a  growth-aid. 

Fresh,  sound  food,  free  itself  from  contamination,  must  be 
kept  apart  from  all  that  is  not.  Any  moldy  bread  or  fruit 
makes  all  near  it  unsafe,  as  does  also  all  food-waste  or  waste 
products  of  living  (as  sewage)  or  of  industry  (as  factory-refuse). 
Receptacles,  wrappers,  carts,  cars,  all  need  to  be  clean  and 
thoroughly  aired.  House,  shop,  factory  refrigerators,  utensils, 
elevators,  must  likewise  be  well-aired  and  cleaned.  Hands  too 
need  to  be  clean  ;  all  that  handle  food  as  produced,  prepared, 
or  eaten.  Lack  of  cleanliness  invites  illness ;  unsound  food 
undermines  health  ;  contaminated  food  causes  disease. 

136  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


WHOLESOMENESS  ^^  ^^^^  ^^^^ 

Cooking  food  destroys  some  disease-germs  but  not  always 
all.  It  cannot  be  relied  upon  to  purify  impure  food  or  freshen 
unsound  food.  Care  alone,  guided  by  science  in  production, 
preservation,  transportation,  manufacture,  preparation,  fur- 
nishes humankind  with  food  that  promotes  human  well-being. 

Pure  food,  pure  water,  pure  air,  are  needed  for  wholesome 
living.  All  are  possible  when  it  is  known  what  makes  these 
pure  and  that  their  purity  is  as  important  to  human  life  as 
their  plentifulness.  It  is  only  as  these  are  pure  for  all  of  a 
community  that-  they  can  assuredly  be  for  any  one  in  it. 
Disease  anywhere  easily  passes  to  food,  and  through  food 
takes  health  from  those  to  whom  such  food  goes. 

Clean-appearing  food  may  not  always  be  pure  food,  as  clear 
water  may  not  be  pure  water.  Pure  food  is  clean  food,  so  kept  as 
to  be  sound  without  introducing  non-food  substances  to  pre- 
serve the  food  or  improve  its  appearance  without  improving  its 
quality,  as  does  coating  rice  with  glucose  and  talcum  or  using 
benzoate  of  soda  in  factory  foods,  such  as  canned  tomatoes. 

Storage  of  food  may  preserve  freshness  of  appearance 
without  preventing  deterioration  in  quality.  Low  temperatures 
may  delay  development  of  bacteria,  yet  not  destroy  them. 
Bacteria  are  then  left  to  grow  when  the  food  comes  from 
storage.  Temperatures  even  so  low  as  probably  to  free  food 
from  such  danger  still  may  not  have  made  inactive  soluble 
ferments  natural  in  foods  themselves.  Such  ferments  can 
cause  fermentation  at  the  lowered  temperatures  of  cold  stor- 
age or  refrigerated  freight.  Food  that  has  been  stored  long 
or  traveled  far  is  often  decayed  by  such  ferments.  Food  may 
become  so  in  the  home  refrigerator  when  not  used  promptly. 

Germ-life  (bacteria  and  molds)  abounds  in  refuse,  vitiated 
air,  contaminated  water.    These  are  disease-sources. 

LIVING  —  INDUSTRY—  COMMERCE  137 


ADULTERATED  FOODS  ^M^  I'AW 

Adulteration  of  food  is  relatively  modern.  Home-grown, 
home-cooked  food  may  lack  purity  through  ignorance  or 
neglect,  but  only  industry-produced,  factory-prepared,  shop- 
served  food  is  ever  adulterated.  An  effort  is  always  made  to 
provide  pure  food  when  the  purpose  is  human  nutrition. 

Food  laws  purpose  to  protect  humanity  against  abuse  of  food 
for  financial  advantage.  What  science  finds  harmful,  law  for- 
bids ;  what  is  in  doubt,  law  usually  permits.  But  there  is  in- 
creasing scientific  direction  of  all  that  affects  the  food  of 
humanity ;   also  increasing  law  control. 

Substances  known  to  be  dangerous  to  life,  if  added  to  food 
for  any  purpose,  would  be  adulterants.  Such  additions  are, 
however,  not  usual.  Substances  not  themselves  foods  are  still 
used,  which  are  introduced  to  improve  appearance,  such  as 
chemicals  to  keep  canned  peas  or  beans  green  or  to  permit  pro- 
longed keeping  of  food  for  gain.  Law  requires  that  the  pres- 
ence of  most  of  these  be  stated  on  food-labels,  such  as  talcum 
coating  rice.  Better  health  results  from  not  eating  even  sup- 
posedly harmless  substances  if  they  are  not  human  foods. 

Lessening  nutritive  value  of  foods,  as  watering  milk,  is 
adulteration ;  adding  to  weight  would  also  be.  This  is  now  more 
rare.  Coloring  or  thickening  to  pretend  a  quality  not  pos- 
sessed by  the  food  is  food-adulteration,  too.  Such  is  thicken- 
ing cream  with  gelatin  or  producing  seeming  freshness  in  stale 
food  by  chemicals,  as  change  of  color  in  meat,  or  preventing  by 
chemicals  natural  changes  in  food,  as  the  souring  of  milk.  Sub- 
stitutions in  commercially  prepared  foods  as  chicory  in  ground 
coffee,  food  laws  prohibit ;  also  concealed  substitution  of  a 
cheaper  food-ingredient  of  equivalent  use,  even  if  itself  not 
unwholesome,  for  a  more  expensive,  such  as  glucose  for  sugar 
in  candies,  oleomargarine  for  butter,  cottonseed-oil  for  olive-oil. 

138  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


ANNOUNCEMENT  ^^^  FOOD-LABELS 

Food-labels  come  into  important  connection  with  human 
nourishment  through  industrial  food-production,  preserva- 
tion, preparation.  When  food  was  home-grown,  cared  for  at 
home,  and  cooked  ^there,  what  it  was,  what  its  condition 
was,  and  how  it  was  changed  for  human  use  was  naturally 
known,  and  the  food  itself  was  used  in  a  relatively  natural 
state.  Avoid  non-food  ingredients.  Overripe  and  overkept 
foods  may  endanger  life  and  do  undermine  health. 

But  with  the  extension  of  food  products  through  ages  of 
living  and  with  the  application  of  developing  science  and  the 
dissemination  of  provisions  used  by  humanity  for  its  suste- 
nance, industry  has  entered  the  home  significantly.  It  has 
become  largely  responsible  for  the  supplies  of  the  home.  In- 
dustry is  now  expected  to  indicate  what  it  is  offering  on  the 
labels  that  law  usually  requires.    Read  food-labels. 

The  facts  may  be  accurately  stated,  yet  the  purchaser  be 
misled.  This  is  possible  mainly  because  of  ignorance  on  the 
part  of  the  consumer  that  buys.  The  composition  of  a  food 
may  be  similar  to  that  of  another  valued  food,  still  not  be  of 
like  value  as  a  human  food.  It  is  sometimes  stated  in  adver- 
tisements that  rice  contains  a  percentage  of  food-building  sub- 
stance (protein)  equivalent  to  that  in  a  pound  of  meat.  But 
this  does  not  make  rice  a  food  substitute  for  meat,  because 
for  the  same  weight  they  differ  greatly  in  bulk  when  cooked. 
Rice  expands,  taking  up  water ;  meat  shrinks,  losing  water. 
Meat  and  rice  also  differ  in  the  other  constituents  they  con- 
tain ;  these  differ  in  their  use  in  the  body.  Only  knowledge 
of  all  the  facts  about  foods  insures  a  satisfactory  choice. 

Labels  state  what  law  exacts  and  what  will  stimulate  sales. 
Statement  is  required  of  addition  to  food,  but  not  always  of 
the  quality  and  composition  of  the  food.    Know  food  lazvs. 

LIVING  —  INDUSTRY—  COMMERCE  139 


EFFORT  TO  SELL  ^^^  ADVERTISEMENT 

Effort  to  sell  leads  to  advice  from  sellers.  It  takes  form  in 
advertisement.  Such  announcement  seeks  to  secure  the  re- 
sponse desired,  usually  purchase  of  something  sold  for  profit. 
As  the  purpose  is  to  commend  what  is  for  sale,  what  can  be 
said  in  favor  of  proffered  products  is  said.  All  facts  may  not 
be  published,  due  partly  to  lack  of  space,  sometimes  for  other 
reasons  too.  Laws  guarantee  nothing  ;  they  only  require  cer- 
tain conditions  to  be  maintained. 

A  manufacturer  may  state  such  requirements  have  been 
complied  with  and  stop  there  or  he  may  add  what  he  thinks 
desirable  to  be  known.  Lentils  are  a  chief  article  of  diet  of 
some  European  workers,  as  is  often  advertised.  That  does  not, 
however,  commend  their  like  use  where  the  dietary  may  be  va- 
ried by  freshly  prepared  foods  as  desirable  themselves,  as  are 
peas  and  beans,  especially  if  the  lentils  come  canned. 

Artificially  compounded  foods  may  have  only  such  constit- 
uents as  are  permitted  by  law,  but  if  what  these  are  and  what 
they  come  from  is  not  known,  no  one  can  be  intelligently  fed 
who  uses  them.  That  a  food  of  unknown  origin  serves  a 
cooking-purpose,  as  a  fat  that  heats  without  burning,  is  not 
enough  to  know  about  any  food.  Science  seeks  to  understand 
the  secrets  of  nature  ;  these  it  discloses  to  humanity  for  its 
more  competent  living,  not  to  compound  secret  foods  for 
human  consumption.  What  is  not  said  in  advertisements  is 
often  more  important  than  what  is.    Ask  for  this  too. 

''  Pure  food  "  as  a  trade  term  means  only  not  adulterated 
in  the  eyes  of  the  prevailing  law.  Legally,  ''  pure  food  "  is 
not  a  recommendation  ;  it  is  only  a  precaution  against  foods 
known  to  be  unsafe ;  it  does  not  in  itself  make  any  food  an 
essentially  desirable  humaii  food.  Desirable  foods  are  legally 
pure,  but  also  assuredly  clean,  wholesome,  and  nourishing. 

140  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


UNDERSTANDING  ^=iJ^  ENDEAVOR  TO  SAVE 

Understanding  what  food  is  and  does  can  prevent  all  food- 
•  dangers  ;  nothing  else  can.  Such  knowledge  makes  clear  what 
is  said  about  food ;  nothing  else  does.  As  science  has  in- 
creased what  is  known,  learning  about  living  has  become  more 
complex,  but  it  is  also  more  interesting  and  of  greater  value  to 
human  life.  The  necessity  to  know  how  to  live  wholesomely 
has  increased  with  modern  civilization.  Human  development 
depends  upon  the  life-supplies'  being  those  human  life  itself 
demands  for  living,  growing,  working.  Food-production  needs 
to  be  of  the  provisions  human  living  can  flourish  upon,  and 
distribution  such  as  will  reach  all  humanity. 

Saving  by  buying  what  will  not  nourish  costs  human  health, 
efficiency,  and  sometimes  life  itself.  Living  requires  what 
fosters  life ;  this  known,  secured,  and  utilized  builds  up  hu- 
manity by  insuring  to  it  health,  growth,  energy,  capability. 
What  is  said  about  anything  that  is  to  be  used  to  sustain 
human  life  must  be  tested  by  what  it  will  actually  do  to 
humanity.  Food  has  just  one  human  use,  that  is,  to  nourish 
the  body.  What  foods  should  be  used  is  determined  by  their 
actual  usefulness  in  the  living-economy  of  the  body  itself: 
Nothing  is  saved  by  trying  to  use  what  does  not  do  what  the 
body  needs  to  have  done  for  it  by  food. 

It  is  the  complete  utilization  of  the  foods  that  are  really 
nourishing  which  is  the  only  saving  that  can  be  practiced  with 
profit  to  human  life.  Desirable  foods  are  not  all  equally  expen- 
sive nor  of  the  same  expense  at  all  seasons.  Undesirable  foods 
used  to  save  time,  effort,  or  money  are  the  most  expensive  to 
life  and  working-power.  Choose  the  foods  of  greatest  use  to 
the  body  and  use  these  fully.  This  is  true  saving,  and  the  only 
safe  saving,  as  is  not  the  endeavor  to  save  that  might  lead 
to  practices  that  deprive  humanity  of  needed  nourishment. 

LIVING  —  INDUSTRY—  COMMERCE  141 


WHOLESOME  FOODS  ^^^  REGULATION 

Wholesome  food  is  undiseased,  uncontaminated,  unadul- 
terated. Plants  and  animals  that  furnish  human  food  need 
health  themselves.  For  this  they  require  themselves  proper 
and  plentiful  food,  fresh  air,  uncontaminated  water,  cleanli- 
ness of  surroundings,  protection  from  weather  blights  of  cold 
or  drought  or  violence,  and  intelligent  care  as  they  are  pro- 
duced, transported,  marketed,  prepared,  served. 

Plants  poorly  nourished  make  inferior  food ;  diseased 
plants  make  dangerous  food.  Poorly  cared-for  grain  foods 
cause  disease  instead  of  furthering  health.  Quality  of  soils 
and  science-methods  of  production  are  garden  problems,  but 
only  as  these  are  known  and  used  to  grow  well  plants  can 
humanity  be  fed  with  wholesome  vegetables.  The  part  of  the 
plant  used  for  food  and  the  way  it  is  used  determine  some- 
what the  care  needed  in  growing  and  keeping  it. 

Animals  poorly  fed  and  living  under  unsanitary  conditions 
are  not  healthy,  therefore  cannot  provide  wholesome  human 
food.  Food-inspection  is  expected  to  regulate  the  condition 
of  meats  marketed.  Not  only  diseased  parts,  but  any  part  of 
-an  animal  that  is  in  any  way  diseased  is  unsafe  for  food.  All 
meat  eaten  must  be  from  undiseased  animals  and  must  not 
be  stored  for  a  long  time. 

Freezing  and  thawing  change  foods  undesirably.  Sub- 
stances unfavorable  to  human  life  may  be  left  in  foods  in 
which  bacteria  have  grown,  even  after  the  bacteria  are  them- 
selves destroyed.  Some  germs  only  delay  their  development 
at  low  temperatures.  Natural  ferments  change  foods  in  un- 
propitious  ways  not  readily  revealed  to  the  senses.  Hence 
the  necessity  of  scientific  examination  of  foods  that  are  trans- 
ported or  stored  and  of  legal  regulation  to  procure  a  whole- 
some food-supply  for  humanity. 

142  FOOD—  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


SCIENTIFIC  DIRECTION  ^W^  MODIFICATION  OF  FOOD 

Natural  state  of  food  once  meant  as  it  grew  wild ;  it  now 
means  as  food  is  cultivated.  Many  foods  are  now  still  further 
modified.  Some  are  commonly  used  as  food-ingredients,  as 
are  sugar,  fats,  grain  flours. 

Scientific  examination  of  all  foods  and  food-modifications 
is  necessary.  This  is  not  simply  to  detect  impurity.  Effort  to 
make  food  finer  as  a  refinement  of  civilized  life  does  not 
always  produce  a  better  food-product.  Polishing  rice  has  re- 
sulted in  depriving  it  of  some  salts  it  naturally  contains  and 
the  body  needs.  These  withheld  endanger  health.  What  nat- 
ural elements  of  food  are  left  in,  or  what  are  taken  out,  affects 
significantly  human  health.  What  is  taken  out  of  food  in 
manufacture  is  as  important  as  what  is  put  in.  Law  recognizes 
this  less,  but  human  health  is  no  less  affected  by  it,  even  when 
the  cause  is  not  known.    Science  finds  facts  ;  law  directs  acts. 

Grains  naturally  contain  some  substances  the  body  needs 
which  are  so  arranged  physically  in  grains  that  to  keep  them 
in  food  is  to  keep  also  coarse  particles  that  the  human  body 
cannot  digest.  Even  its  opportunity  to  digest  other  food  may 
be  somewhat  lessened  by  the  presence  of  such  particles,  for 
these  may  quickly  pass  through  the  digestive  tract  and  carry 
with  them  all  food  present  in  it,  even  that  which  needs  to  be 
retained  for  use.  Bran  in  flour  serves  a  health-purpose  by 
aiding  in  freeing  the  body  of  food-waste.  It  is  not  itself 
nourishing.  Food-scientists  now  doubt  whether  the  salts  as- 
sociated with  it  are  released  for  food-use  in  the  body. 

Science  studies  food  and  food-effects  ;  what  it  finds  it  tells. 
Industry  is  more  and  more  expected  to  do  what  human  life 
needs  done.  Communities  more  and  more  select  scientifically 
equipped  persons  to  direct  food-production  in  the  interest  of 
human  well-being. 

LIVING  —  INDUSTRY—  COMMERCE  143 


CANNED  FOOD  ^^^  INDUSTRY 

Canning  food  was  originally  practiced  to  secure  variety  by 
keeping  thus  for  out-of-season  use  such  foods  as  could  not  be 
kept  either  fresh  or  dried.  It  has  been  extended  in  order  to 
prepare  food  easily  and  quickly.  Scientific  canning  may  pro- 
duce safe  food.  Canned  food  is,  however,  usually  somewhat 
less  desirable  than  freshly  prepared  and  is  rarely  so  palatable. 
Different  foods  differ  in  desirability  when  canned.  Many  lose 
their  flavor.  A  few  though  changed  are  still  very  acceptable  ; 
tomatoes  are,  when  good  tomatoes  have  been  used. 

Dried  vegetables,  as  beans  and  peas,  though  still  used,  as 
they  should  be,  are  less  usual  than  of  old.  They  are  largely 
superseded  by  canned  foods,  as  canned  are  beginning  to  be  by 
transported.  Transporting  foods  from  all  climes  brings  them 
in  their  natural  state  at  most  seasons.  Dried  foods  lose  water 
mainly  ;  canned,  some  flavor  ;  transported  wilt  and  are  often 
open  to  contamination.  Delayed  use  of  any  type  has  dangers. 
•Garden  freshness  brings  health. 

Preserved  meats  usually  contain  some  addition  of  natural 
or  artificial  preservatives,  as  meat  is  not  easily  kept  by  cooking 
and  sealing.  It  is  dried,  smoked,  salted,  corned,  pickled,  cov- 
ered with  oil,  refrigerated,  or  frozen. 

Dangers  of  canned  foods  are  deterioration  in  quality  and,  if 
kept  long,  possible  formation  of  undesirable  substances  ;  hence 
the  advisability  of  dating  all  canned  foods.  Law  does  not  as 
yet  require  this.  Acid  foods  in  tin  may  form  dangerous  com- 
pounds if  carelessly  canned,  overkept,  or  permitted  to  stand 
in  cans  after  opened.  Canning  makes  possible  many  inferior 
food-substitutes  that  high  seasoning  conceals ;  hence  the  neces- 
sity of  using  only  reliable  brands.  Overripe  fruits  and  vege- 
tables and  undesirable  meats  can  be  sold  canned  which  would 
not  otherwise  be  salable. 

144  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


PRODUCTS  ^^i^  MANUFACTURED  FOOD 

Food  products  have  rarely  been  used  simply  as  taken  from 
nature.  Fresh  vegetables,  fruits,  and  milk  are  the  only  com- 
mon foods  now  so  used ;  even  these  are  also  eaten  in  many 
prepared  forms.  Canned  foods  are  usually  cooked  and  sealed. 
Sometimes  they  have,  however,  simply  had  the  air  excluded, 
as  blueberries  sealed  in  water,  for  use  at  sea,  where  they  are 
taken  to  prevent  disease  caused  by  lack  of  food-salts. 

Manufactured  foods  are  not  all  cooked  or  canned.  Some 
are  only  milled,  as  are  most  grains  that  are  used  as  flours  or 
meals.  Grains  must  be  in  wholesome  condition  themselves,  be 
ground  under  sanitary  conditions,  and  kept  clean  and  dry,  to 
produce  health-giving  foods. 

Originally  only  such  foods  were  sold  manufactured  as  would 
not  otherwise  be  edible.  Sugar  and  molasses  have  so  long  been 
used  as  manufactured  foods  that  they  are  commonly  accepted 
as  natural  in  this  state  and  the  processes  used  to  produce  them 
are  generally  unfamiliar.  Butter  and  cheese,  though  once 
home-produced,  are  now  usually  bought  without  thought  as  to 
their  derivation.  Jams  and  jellies  from  fruits,  and  soups  from 
meats  and  vegetables,  appear  now  as  manufactured  products 
for  sale,  but  these  are  still  also  often  home-made. 

Foods  of  concealed  composition  are,  as  noted,  beginning  to 
appear.  These  must  satisfy  law  standards  for  food.  That  a 
substance  has  the  composition  and  characteristics  that  serve  a 
given  food-purpose  does  not  essentially  make  it  an  acceptable 
article  of  diet.  Oils  made  from  food-refuse  and  called  ''  salad  " 
oil  make  little  appeal  to  those  that  know  their  origin.  Even 
cottonseed-oil  needs  to  be  known  and  sold  as  itself  rather 
than  as  ''  salad  "  oil  charged  for  as  olive-oil. 

Use  food  of  which  the  composition  can  be  entirely  known  and  the 
process  of  its  manufacture  fully  seen. 

LIVING  —  INDUSTRY—  COMMERCE  145 


BUYING  FOOD  4^^  ECONOMY 

All  foods  are  beginning  to  be  sold  by  weight.  This  is  most 
desirable.  Food  of  good  quality  bought  thus  enables  one  to 
know  accurately  what  is  obtained,  also  to  learn  more  easily 
how  much  is  eaten.  It  is  advisable  in  buying  to  know  what 
different  quantities  of  different  foods  weigh  ;  as^ 

I  pk.  of  peas  weighs  about  6  lb.,  and  3  lb.  yield  about  i  lb.  shelled.  At 
50^  a  peck  they  then  cost  25^  per  pound  shelled.  (This  is  buying  at  the 
highest  price  and  in  small  quantity.)  Canned  peas  cost  1 5^  to  30^  (accord- 
ing to  quality)  and  weigh  i  lb.    Do  fresh  or  canned  peas  cost  more  ? 

Many  foods  are  usually  sold  by  box  or  basket  at  a  stated 
price  for  all.  Too  frequently  these  are  not  of  even  quality  or 
degree  of  freshness.  Fresh  and  stale  food  should  not  be  sold 
mixed  ;  they  are  not  of  the  same  value.  Even  when  sold  at 
an  averaged  price,  such  mixing  is  undesirable.  They  do  not 
cook  evenly.  Fresh  string-beans,  for  example,  may  cook  in 
20  to  30  min.    Those  traveled  and  held  require  i|-  to  3  hours. 

Such  practices  as  using  sound,  ripe  tomatoes  for  top  rows 
on  boxes  of  those  less  acceptable  should  be  discouraged.  It  is 
not  thus  that  a  good  food-supply  at  fair  cost  is  insured  to  a  com- 
munity. Packing  food  in  movable  trays  (paper  or  other)  aids  in 
inspection.  Food-quality  always  needs  to  be  known.  See  what 
is  bought ;  buy  what  is  good ;  keep  food  well  and  use  fully. 

Some  foods  may  be  home-stored  if  house  space  is  available 
at  suitable  temperature  with  pure  atmosphere  and  sanitary  care. 
Flour  is  desirable  by  the  barrel  when  it  can  be  kept  dry  and 
away  from  all  animal  life.  Potatoes  may  be  stored  by  the  bar- 
rel for  winter  use  when  they  can  be  kept  cool  and  dark,  with 
air  excluded.  Few  foods  will,  however,  keep  in  hot  apartment- 
houses.  Though  small  buying  is  higher  and  to  be  avoided, 
wasteful  use  is  no  more  economical.  Three  for  25  cents  is  not 
wise,  saving  buying,  if  only  one  is  used  or  is  superior. 

146  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


INVESTIGATION  ^^^  TESTING  FOOD 

Home  testing  of  food-quality  is  still  somewhat  useful.  But  to 
insure  satisfactory  quality  and  full  quantity  more  adequate  com- 
munity regulation  of  the  quality  of  all  food  for  all  of  humanity 
is  the  modern  necessity.  It  is  well  to  know  that  butter  whe7i 
pure  boils  quietly.  But  when  all  butter  is  sold  for  what  it  is, 
it  will  not  need  to  be  tested  after  it  is  bought.  Testing  should 
precede  placing  food  on  sale.  When  on  sale  the  facts  of  the 
test  should  be  stated  as  commonly  and  clearly  as  the  price. 

Selling  food  for  its  real  quality  and  its  actual  quantity  needs 
to  be  made  the  universal  practice.  Human  life  and  efficiency 
require  that  such  care  be  exercised  in  obtaining  human  food. 
Chicory  in  coffee  can  be  detected  at  home.  ''  Broken  "  eggs 
in  bakery-products  cannot  be  detected  by  home  tests.  Yet  the 
human  body  experiences  the  disadvantage  of  consuming  unfit 
food.  Only  investigation  of  raw  food-materials  reveals  many 
modern  food-deteriorations  that  entail  illness  not  always  easily 
traced  to  this  cause.  Inferior  ingredients  cannot  make  superior 
foods  or  even  reliable.  Supervision  of  what  is  used  by  those 
that  know  what  should  be  eaten,  will  alone  make  compounded 
foods  safe  and  wholesome.  Intelligent  use  cannot  be  made 
of  foods  of  concealed  origin,  manufacture,  or  composition. 

What  cannot  be  tested,  as  *'  broken  "  eggs,  in  food,  together 
with  what  cannot  be  known  by  the  consumer,  as  that  a  food  oil 
has  been  shipped  in  a  kerosene-barrel,  the  community  must 
be  responsible  for  preventing.  Otherwise  the  discovery  is  left 
to  be  made  by  the  illness  of  those  so  fed.  All  that  know  the 
need  (and  all  should  know  it)  must  aid  in  securing  the  kind 
of  investigation  and  supervision  of  food-preparation  that  the 
extension  of  food-industry  now  makes  necessary,  because  home 
testing  cannot  reach  the  dangers,  and  human  digestion  cannot 
deal  with  products  not  digestible  by  the  body. 

LIVING  —  INDUSTRY—  COMMERCE  147 


ARTIFICIAL  FOODS  ^M^  SCIENCE 

Natural  foods  were  originally  simply  nature-produced.  By 
the  aid  of  humankind  cultivated  and  manufactured  foods  have 
become  natural  as  foods  in  so  far  as  they  have  become  usual 
and  humankind  has  become  adjusted  to  their  use.  All  modifi- 
cation of  food  to  improve  it  as  human  food  is  to  be  encouraged, 
but  is  to  be  distinguished  from  changes  in  foods  to  increase 
profit  rather  than  to  improve  their  nourishing  properties. 

The  tendency  to-day  in  artificial  changes  in  food  is  com- 
mercial rather  than  nutritive.  Knowledge  of  food  and  its  use 
to  the  human  body  should  direct  both  the  selection  of  food  and 
the  regulation  of  its  production. 

Some  scientists  claim  that  artificially  prepared  substances 
that  are  chemically  the  same  as  food-substances  are  satisfactory 
food-substitutes,  and  that  they  may  be  made  even  more  free 
from  substances  undesirable  in  food  than  are  natural  foods. 
Others  think  not.  But  all  are  agreed  that  such  is  not  yet  the 
practice,  and  that  science  has  as  yet  been  used  more  in  the 
service  of  profit  than  in  purifying  food.  Constructed  foods 
are  now  on  the  market ;  such  are  some  fruit-flavors. 

The  use  of  by-products  of  manufacture  for  food  has  intro- 
duced cottonseed-oil,  glucose,  and  other  substances  that  chemi- 
cally are  the  equivalent  of  foods  long  in  use.  When  made  of 
wholesome  materials  and  by  means  of  sanitary  processes  such 
foods  are  not  objectionable,  though  they  rarely  are  as  palatable 
as  are  foods  more  directly  produced  by  nature.  They  often 
are  not  so  generally  digestible. 

Foods  constructed  to  deceive,  through  a  desire  to  save  ex- 
pense in  order  to  increase  profit,  may  be  dangerous  to  health. 
Jams  made  of  fruit-pulp  discarded  from  jelly-making  and  col- 
ored artificially  cannot  be  nutritious  nor  can  catsup  made  of 
woody-fiber  vegetables  and  colored  red  with  aniline  dyes. 

148  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


COMMERCE  ^y^  CHEMICALS  IN  FOOD 

Preservatives  are  old  in  use  and  are  used  to  keep  food  as 
natural  as  possible.  Originally  this  was  practiced  for  out-of- 
season  use  of  seasonally  produced  food,  where  the  supply  of 
food  was  limited.  The  substances  used  were  those  also  used 
for  condiments,  as  vinegar,  alcohol,  spices,  salt.  Smoking  too 
was  practiced  ;  it  preserves,  because  smoke  contains  creosote 
that  is  a  germicide  and  that  is  so  used  as  a  drug. 

Why  preservatives  did  preserve  food  was  long  unknown. 
But  with  the  discovery  of  bacteria  came  a  knowledge  of  the 
cause  of  decomposition  that  is  generally  recognized  as  putre- 
faction or  decaying  of  food.  To  overcome  such  changes  they 
were  studied.  It  has  been  found  that  only  a  few  kinds  of 
bacteria  cause  these  changes.  Extremes  of  temperature  (see 
Sterilization,  p.  152)  are  unfavorable  to  the  growth  of  such 
bacteria,  as  are  also  many  chemicals. 

Modern  chemical  preservatives,  refrigeration,  sterilization, 
are  used  mainly  for  their  effect  upon  these  putrefactive  bacte- 
ria, in  order  to  prevent  unpleasant  tastes  and  odors.  Some  of 
the  chemicals  used  are  borax  or  boric  acid,  benzoate  of  soda, 
formaldehyde,  sulphites,  hydrogen  peroxid.  None  of  these 
are  foods.  Some  that  have  been  found  not  to  injure  healthy 
adults  have  affected  young  animals  seriously,  and  are  not  ad- 
vised even  when  not  forbidden  by  law.  For  children,  invalids, 
and  the  aged  they  may  be  perilous ;  for  any  one  they  may 
cause  kidney-deterioration,  so  later  disease.  Sulphites,  used  to 
make  meat  red,  cause  hemorrhages  of  different  organs.  Hydro- 
gen peroxid  is  not  considered  unsafe  ;  when  added  to  food 
it  breaks  up  quickly  into  simply  water  and  oxygen.  But  oxygen 
as  it  is  being  thus  freed  from  chemical  combination  is  particu- 
larly destructive  to  bacterial  life  ;  also  to  tissues,  therefore  is 
claimed  by  some  to  affect  unfavorably  the  food-quality. 

LIVING  —  INDUSTRY—  COMMERCE  149 


FOOD-REGULATION  ^^*^  GOVERNMENT 

With  widely  distributed  production,  transportation,  storage, 
preservation,  and  factory  preparation  of  food,  keeping  food  has 
grown  to  be  an  important  problem  that  needs  to  be  solved  for 
all  humanity.  Fortunately  both  science  and  government  are 
seriously  concerning  themselves  with  this  problem.  The  inter- 
pretation of  the  laws  regulating  the  practices  in  the  preserva- 
tion of  food  is  also  coming  under  closer  consideration. 

The  attorney  general  of  the  United  States  is  quoted  as  say- 
ing in  a  specific  instance  regarding  food-purity  : 

If  minute  quantities  of  nitrites  may  be  added  to  flour,  of  boric  acid 
to  eggs,  of  chromate  of  lead  to  the  coffee-bean,  of  sulphate  of  copper  to 
peas,  of  arsenic  or  lead  to  baking-powder,  of  Martin's  yellow  to  maca- 
roni, of  wood-alcohol  to  flavoring-extracts,  so  long  as  it  is  not  probable 
that  enough  in  each  case  has  been  added  possibly  to  injure  health  of  some 
one,  then  the  statute  is  incapable  of  enforcement.  If  actual  injury  must 
be  shown,  what  standard  of  resistance  is  to  be  adopted  ?  Will  it  be  that 
of  the  sickly  infant  or  that  of  the  strong  man  ? 

Bleaching  and  dyeing  foods  to  improve  their  appearance 
as  well  as  preservatives,  bring  into  foods  substances  foreign  to 
them,  which  do  not  always  affect  favorably  either  the  foods 
or  the  persons  that  consume  foods  so  treated.  Sulphites  are 
used  to  bleach  asparagus  and  other  light-colored  vegetables 
and  fruits,  also  flours  and  sugar. 

Dyes  may  be  those  natural  in  vegetable  food  which  have 
been  extracted  to  be  so  used.  But  food-dyes  may  also  be  ani- 
line dyes  made  from  coal-tar  products.  None  of  the  latter  are 
foods.  Some  are  considered  harmless  ;  others  are  known  to 
be  poisonous.  The  government  forbids  use  of  the  latter.  Col- 
oring food  is  to-day  common.  Confections  are  generally  arti- 
ficially colored  ;  even  canned  tomatoes  have  been  found  to  be. 

Reliable  sources  of  supply,  scientifically  regulated,  are  essen- 
tial for  safe  foods,  especially  when  preserved,  bleached,  or  dyed. 

150  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


CARE  ^^^  FOOD-DETERIORATION 

Pleasing  appearance  in  food  needs  to  be  effected  through 
care  of  the  product  and  not  by  artificially  concealing  its  defects 
or  by  rendering  the  food  itself  defective.  Manufactured  foods 
are  open  to  both  dangers.  Graham  flour,  in  retaining  bran, 
needs  more  special  care  to  be  clean  than  other  flours  that  are 
essentially  free  from  all  scourings. 

Rice  when  polished  loses  salts  without  which  the  body  may 
develop  nervous  disorder  of  a  serious  nature  (beriberi).  Where 
rice  is  a  chief  article  of  diet,  polishing  it  may  become  a  men- 
ace ;  it  is  alwaysa  danger.  Rice  is,  however,  not  to  be  avoided, 
but  to  be  secured  unpolished  and  uncoated.  It  is  its  quality, 
not  appearance,  that  affects  human  health.  Corn  meal,  a  com- 
mon, nutritious,  cheap  food,  may  cause  devitalizing  disease 
(through  malnutrition)  when  it  is  produced  or  ground  under 
unsanitary  conditions  or  kept  under  such. 

Ignorance  or  neglect  may  make  foods  unwholesome.  Craft 
in  commerce  may,  too.  Whatever  the  cause  of  unfit  food  — 
be  it  non-food  preservatives,  unsafe  dyes,  crude  by-products, 
artificial  additions  for  appearance  or  as  concealed  substitutions 
in  food,  or  chemically  constructed  foods  instead  of  nature- 
grown  —  in  so  far  as  it  is  unfit  it  cannot  nourish.  Such  food 
is  more  than  valueless  ;  it  is  a  dangerous  food-burden. 

Bacteria  in  food  cause  general  deterioration  and  often  spe- 
cific disease.  Meat  and  milk  change  so  easily  that  only  the 
greatest  care  keeps  them  safe  foods.  Water  is  open  to  so  many 
sources  of  contamination  that  to  insure  its  purity  requires  great 
care.  Fats  are  less  readily  affected  by  bacteria,  so  do  not  de- 
teriorate as  easily.  Green  vegetables  are  more  apt  to  carry  bac- 
teria of  the  soil  and  dust  than  themselves  to  deteriorate  through 
the  presence  of  these.  Starchy  vegetables  uncooked  do  not 
readily  support  bacterial  life,  so  do  not  deteriorate  promptly. 

LIVING  —  INDUSTRY--  COMMERCE  151 


STERILIZATION  ^^^  PURIFYING  FOOD 

Sterile  food  is  food  free  from  bacteria  of  all  kinds.  Sterili- 
zation of  food  is  therefore  destroying  all  bacteria.  Dry  heat 
at  350°+  F.,  steam  (moist  heat)  under  pressure,  and  some 
chemicals  will  kill  bacteria.  The  chemicals  that  will  do  this 
would,  however,  render  a  food  unfit  for  human  use,  so  heat 
must  be  relied  upon  to  sterilize  food.  The  process  of  render- 
ing food  sterile  by  heat  is  known  as  sterilization.  The  degree 
of  heat  necessary  may  decrease  the  palatability  of  many  foods, 
also  even  the  nutritiousness  of  some.  Sterilized  milk  is  less 
palatable  than  raw ;  fats  raised  to  high  temperature  decom- 
pose ;  sugar  changes  its  form.  But  such  foods  as  can  be  steri- 
lized are  thus  made  safe,  if  not  reexposed  after  being  sterilized. 

To  prevent  destruction  of  a  food  and  yet  its  deterioration, 
less  intense  heat  is  used.  This,  however,  only  checks  bacterial 
growth  without  destroying  the  bacteria  that  may  develop  later 
under  more  favorable  conditions  for  their  life.  Freezing  acts 
similarly.  Bacteria  that  cause  human  disease  may  resist 
effectively  extremes  of  temperature,  either  high  or  low,  moist 
or  dry.  It  is  therefore  only  such  as  affect  the  food  itself 
(putrefactive  bacteria),  not  the  person  directly  (as  do  patho- 
genic or  disease-producing  bacteria),  which  cooking  and  freez- 
ing food  destroy  or  even  significantly  delay  in  their  activity. 

Keeping  food  clean  lessens  contamination  ;  cooking  it  usu- 
ally decreases  the  germs  it  contains ;  cooling  it  delays  its 
decomposition.  Food  requires  continuous  freedom  from  con- 
tamination. Even  when  food  is  to  be  sterilized,  as  in  can- 
ning, it  is  still  important  to  keep  it  sound  and  otherwise  free 
from  contamination.  Food  in  which  bacteria  have  grown  is 
not  freed  of  the  effects  of  their  growth  by  later  sterilization. 
Ptomaines,  for  instance,  are  chemical  substances  formed  by 
bacterial  growth. 

152  FOOD--  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


PRESERVING  FOOD  ^^^  REFRIGERATION 

Refrigeration  of  food  is  its  preservation  by  lowering  the 
temperature  below  that  favorable  for  bacterial  growth.  Though 
this  temperature  varies  for  different  kinds  of  bacteria,  it  is 
generally  true  that  freezing  or  temperatures  near  it  are  un- 
propitious  for  bacteria.  The  disease-producing  bacteria  that 
attack  persons  for  food  grow  best  at  the  temperature  of  the 
body  (98 1 °  F.).  But  some  of  these  have  spore-forms  that  re- 
sist destruction  by  anything  except  extremely  high  heat  con- 
tinued for  some  time,  or  chemicals  dangerous  to  human  life. 
Frozen  or  refrigerated  foods  may  therefore  contain  such  bacte- 
ria in  live  form,  that  will  develop  when  taken  into  the  human 
body.  Hence  the  imperative  necessity  of  keeping  foods  free 
from  contamination  w^hich  are  to  be  preserved  through  freez- 
ing or  refrigeration.    Impure  water  does  not  form  pure  ice. 

The  bacteria  that  attack  foods  for  their  own  food  (that  is^ 
putrefactive  bacteria  that  cause  food-decomposition),  though 
also  affected  by  cold  as  are  the  disease-producing  (pathogenic) 
bacteria,  are  also  not  assuredly  destroyed  by  cold.  Some  putre- 
factive bacteria  remain  somewhat  active  at  low  temperatures 
and  cause  food-deterioration  during  this  form  of  preservation. 
The  refreezing  of  frozen  mixtures,  such  as  ice-creams,  or  the 
use  of  such  foods  for  food-ingredients  when  melted,  as  melted 
ice-cream  in  cake,  is  inadvisable  and  may  even  be  dangerous. 
Freezing  and  thawing  may  change  the  composition  of  some 
foods.  It  usually  increases  the  probability  of  prompt  decay, 
even  when  it  does  not  cause  partial  decomposition.  Some  sub- 
stances, known  as  unorganized  ferments,  remain  active  at  low 
temperatures  at  which  food  is  kept ;  these  may  change  the 
composition  of  the  food  undesirably. 

Cold  storage  in  market  and  transportation  and  refrigeration 
in  the  house  are  alike  in  principle,  though  the  devices  differ. 

LIVING  —  INDUSTRY—  COMMERCE  15S 


FOOD-QUALITY  ^^^  SUMMARY 

Vegetables  in  season,  animals  in  health,  are  wholesome 
natural  foods.  Scientific  care  that  seeks  food-preservation 
and  preparation  that  secures  wholesome  human  foods  and  not 
simply  products  passable  for  sale,  aid  in  nourishing  human- 
kind effectively.  Food-deteriorations  and  dangers  are  increas- 
ingly prevented  by  food-inspection  and  law-regulation  through 
scientifically  trained  community-commissions. 

All  food  must  be  sound  to  be  safe.  Knowledge  protects, 
for  care  must  be  intelligent  to  prevent  exposure  of  food,  so 
wasting  it  and  starving  the  body  or  endangering  health. 

The  effects  of  decomposition  do  not  disappear  when  the 
food  (as  decomposed  fish)  is  heated  or  frozen.  Dried  foods, 
though  they  do  not  foster  activity  of  bacteria,  because  most 
germs  require  moisture,  will  permit  later  development  so 
soon  as  moistened  for  use. 

All  foods  do  not  equally  provide  food  for  bacteria.  Cane-sugar,  salt, 
oil,  and  food-acids,  as  vinegar,  are  less  favorable  to  their  growth  than  are 
other  foods. 

Canned  food  gives  variety  where  the  natural  food-supply  is  neces- 
sarily limited.  Every  one  needs  pure,  wholesome  food  all  the  time. 
Children  and  invalids  7nust  have  it. 

PtomaiJie  poisoning  from  hotel  fare  (Dr.  Schrumpf's  warning).  As- 
paragus, canned  goods,  beans,  may  cause  ptomaine  poisoning  unless 
in  the  best  condition.  Reserving  food  increases  the  danger.  Fish 
should  not  be  eaten  at  inland  hotels  in  warm  weather,  as  it  is  difficult 
to  keep  it  in  proper  condition  for  use.  Chronic  ptomaine  poisoning 
may  result  from  eating  it.  All  high  seasoning  of  food  is  to  be  avoided, 
as  it  conceals  food-quality.  Fresh  food  material  is  to  be  preferred  to 
length  of  menu.  A  continued  intake  of  minute  amounts  of  ptomaines 
causes  loss  of  appetite,  flatulency,  con- 
stipation ;  or  palpitations,  dizziness ;  or  C^^  <f:f 
nervous  restlessness,  headache,  insomnia,  ^-^^"M 

depression. 

154 


OBSERVATIONS 


FOOD-DANGERS 


Many  chemicals  harmful  in  large  quantity  are  used  in  small. 
Though  ill  results  may  not  be  detected,  there  is  reason  to  doubt 
whether  constant  consumption  of  even  small  quantities  is  not 
ultimately  harmful,  especially  as  those  that  eat  any  foods  so 
treated  usually  eat  many.   Such  food-dangers  are  to  be  avoided. 

Dangerous  residues  in  food  of  chemicals  added,  or  of  any  created  by 
bacterial  life,  and  deterioration  of  food-quality  through  the  effect  of  these, 
are  the  dangers  of  commercial  food-preservation  and  food-storage  and 
of  home  delay  in  use  of  food. 

Different  kinds  of  food  need  to  be  kept  apart.  Some  give 
off  odors  ;  fruits  do.  Others  absorb  odors  ;  milk  and  butter 
do,  and  have  their  own  flavors  destroyed  thus.  Cold  compart- 
ments need  to  be  aired  and  kept  completely  clean. 

Though  cooking  usually  destroys  bacteria,  cooked  starchy 
foods  such  as  potatoes  are  decomposed  more  readily  than  un- 
cooked, as  cooked  (not  raw)  starch  readily  supports  germ-life. 

Refrigeration  retards  decay  and  reinstates  appearance  of 
freshness.  Cooled  air  (about  40°  F.)  is  circulated  around 
whatever  is  to  be  preserved  from  decomposition,  or  kept  fresh, 
or  freshened  by  cold.    See  pp.  220-221. 

Ripening  of  fruit  is  affected  by  heat,  moisture,  air,  and  light.  By  con- 
trol of  these  it  may  be  hastened  or  delayed.  Some  fruits,  as  apples,  may 
be  kept  in  ripened  condition  for  a  number  of  months.  Others,  as  bananas, 
may  be  stored  green  and  allowed  to  ripen  in  storage.  This  is  possible 
because  many  of  the  changes  in  ripening  are  carried  on  by  unorganized 
ferments  (or  enzymes)  in  the  fruit.  If  this  is  too  long 
continued,  the  overripe  fruit  becomes  unfit  food.  Fruits 
in  storage  are  living.  They  consume 
oxygen  and  produce  carbon  dioxid. 
As  this  happens,  part  of  their  carbohy- 
drate is  oxidized  and  heat  is  generated. 


15S 


FOOD-COST 


Jm 


AMERICAN  MARKETS 


Average  Cost  of  Food  per  Working  Man's  Family 


N.  Atlantic 

S.  Atlantic 

N.  Central 

S.  Central 

Western 

U.S.A. 

1897 
1907 

$271 

$289 
367 

^266 
341 

$286 
358 

^299 
374 

(Statistical  Abstract  of  the  United  States,  1910) 


(According  to  geographical  divisions) 


Purchasing  Power  of  Weekly  Wage  per  Worker 

Decreased   1.5%  from   1897  to   1907  and  was  .9%  less  than  in   1906 
(measured  by  retail  prices  of  food). 

Increase  in  Wholesale  and  Retail  Prices  from  1897  to  1907 

Wholesale  food-prices  averaged  1  higher  in  1907  than  1897 
Retail  food-prices  averaged  ^  higher  in  1907  than  1897 

Specific  Increase  in  Retail  Prices  of  Staple  Foods 


Price  In- 

Relative Increase  in 

Price  In- 

crease, 
I 897- I 907 

1910  OVER  Average  for 
1890-1899=  100 

crease, 
1897-1907 

% 

% 

% 

% 

Eggs 
Chicken 

50.7 
39.8 

1377 
1314 

1 1 6.8 
120.6 

17.2 

20.4 

Milk 

Beef,  steaks 

Butter 

37-1 

127.6 

119.1 

18.7 

Roasts 

Cheese 

39-8 

123.2 

114.1 

I3-I 

Salted 

Lard 
Pork,  fresh 

49.4 
45- 

134.2 
142.5 

125 
120.6 

25.1 
20.8 

Veal 

Fish  (fresh) 

Salt  (bacon) 
Salt  (dry) 
Ham 

Mutton 

Potatoes 

Cornmeal 

Beans  (dry) 

61.5 
45.1 

30.6 
29.7 
40.4 
29.8 

157-3 
141.2 

1307 
130.I 
120.6 

I3I.6 
1 18.8 

1 21.6 

96. 
107.7 
104.5 
105-3 

95- 
108.5 

27.7 

4.1 

10.2 

7.3 
6.9 

•4 
10.8 

Fish  (salt) 

Sugar 

Molasses 

Vinegar 

Tea 

Coffee 

Rice 

Apples 

(Evaporated) 

41.9 

124.6 

104.5 

117.7. 

4-5 
12.8 

Bread 
Flour 

88.4 

4.9 

Prunes 

(Com  meal,  in  1907  production  and  consumption  larger  than  either  before  or  since,  yet  price 
increased  40%  over  1897  and  31.6%  over  average  in  1890-1899) 


1S6 


FOOD^  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


LIVING-COMMODITIES 


PRICES  —  DUTIES 

Increase  in  Wholesale  Prices  of  Living-Commodities 

(Relative  price  as  compared  with  average  for  1890- 1899) 


Increase 

Increase 

IN  1910 

1910 

IN  1910 

OVER  Year 

OVER  Year 

Given 

Given 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 

Farm-products 

125.4 

48.7 

86.4 

(1898)  Metals, 

(1896) 

78.3 

II0.2 

164.6 

implements 

Food      (1896) 

83.8 

53-6 

128.7 

128.5 

69.5 

90.4 

(1897)     Build- 

Drugs, chemi- 

ing-lumber 

cals     (1895) 

87.9 

33-1 

117. 

III. 6 

24.3 

89.8 

(1897)  Furnish- 

Fuel, lighting 

ings  (house) 

(1894) 

91.4 

35-7 

1254 

1 33- 1 

45.6 

91.4 

(1896)   Miscel- 

Cloths,   cloth- 

lanies 

ing      (1897) 

91. 1 

35.8 

123.7 

131.6 

46.7 

89.7 

(1897)  All  com- 
modities 

(All  data  given  or  used  in  computations  are  from  Statistical  Abstract  of  the  United  States,  1910) 

Importations  and  %  Duty  on  OTtteR  Articles  than  Food 


In  1911 

Value 

Average  Rate 
OF  Duty 

Value 

In  1911 

% 

% 

Cotton 

$64,270,892 

5571 

58.34 

$11,431,652 

China 

Wool 

18,791,076 

87.72 

55.12 

6,639,142 

Glass 

(Unmanufactured) 

29.572,259 

42.20 

29-13 

15,236,699 

Paper 

Silk 

31,965,625 

5347 

38.85 

52,692,318 

Fibers 

Furs 

8,058,688 

26.24 

9.94 

3,606,042 

(Unmanufactured) 

Jewelry,  stones 

32,990,527 

14.18 

32.35 

14,934,247 

Leather 

Liquors 

22.22 

1,958,583 

Paints 

(wines,  spirits) 

18,546,026 

89.8  s 

11.76 

35,657,953 

Woods 

Tobacco 

29,788,180 

87.82 

35- 

8,158,941 

Toys 

31-^3 

22,119,753 

Iron  and  steel 

(Compare  duties  and  importation  above,  also  p.  158.   For  domestic  production  see  pp.  iSri-iS;) 


United  States  in  xgii 

Exports 

Imports 

Exports 

Europe 

North  America 
South  America 

% 
63.84 
22.3 

5-32 

% 

50.3 

20. 

11.96 

% 

13.98 

1.98 

1.78 

% 
4.17 
3.22 
I.15 

Asia 

Oceania 

Africa 

LIVING —INDUSTRY—  COMMERCE 


157 


FOOD-CONSUMPTION 


HniH 


EXCHANGE 


Typical  foods  in  quantities  produced^  imported^  exported^  consumed. 
Domestic  Products 


Produced 
(Bushels) 

Imported 
(Bushels) 

Consumed 
(Bushels) 

Exported  (Bushels) 

Ex- 
ported 

Corn 

% 

1907 

1911 

Wheat 

2,927,414,091 
2,886,260,000 

10,184 
52,569 

2,841,058,047 
2,820,698,047 

86,368,228 
65,614,522 

2.95 

2.27 

1907 
191 1 

735,260,970 
635,121,000 

590,092 
1,142,558 

588,551,205 
566,954,401 

146,700,425  (domestic) 

599,432  (foreign) 
565,809,240  (domestic) 
1,397  (foreign) 

19.95 
10.91 

(Wheat  exported  in  1907,  as  grain  ^  +,  as  flour  \  — ;  in  191 1,  §  +  as  grain,  |  -  as  flour) 

Foreign  Products 


Imports 
(Pounds) 

Value 

Foreign  Ex- 
ports (Lb.) 

Value 

Ave. 
Price 

Lb.  Used 
Per  Capita 

Tea 
1907 
1911 

Coffee 
1907 
1911 

86,368,490 
102,653,942 

986,595,923 
878,322,468 

^I3,9i5'544 
17,613,569 

78,382,823 
90,949,963 

1,520,229 
3,287,366 

11,626,599 

8,457,003 

$207,094 
447,304 

1,293,184 
1,096,052 

17.2^ 

7.9^ 
10.3^ 

.96 
1.04 

II. 17 
9.27 

(Less  coffee  and  more  tea  used  in  191 1  than  1907.   Price  of  each  rose,  though  both  duty-free) 

Dutiable  Articles  of  Food  Imported  for  Consumption  in  1911 


In  1911 

Value 

Average  Rate 
OF  Duty 

Value 

In  1911 

% 

% 

Animals 

$3,491,030 

25.96 

31-35 

$9,266,094 

Vegetables 

Meats  and 

35-03 

4,163,113 

Rice 

dairy-products 

11,261,639 

28.13 

53-95 

97,872,117 

Sugar 

Fish 

12,915,830 

19.2 

36.7 

21,843,214 

Fruits  and  nuts 

Oils  (not  all  food  oils) 

12,307,223 

27.65 

31-56 

11,729,802 

Breadstuffs 

Drugs,  dyes,  and 

chemicals 

32,614,967 

22.07 

(Free-list  under  consideration  for  1913  includes  cattle,  meats,  wheat,  and  flour,  but  only  from 
countries  extending  same  commercial  privileges  to  the  United  States) 


255 


FOOD—  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


IN  FRANCE 


Km 


FOOD-CONSUMPTION 


World-wide  study  of  food-production,  diet-habits,  and  food- 
needs  has  been  in  progress  for  the  past  two  decades.  Physi- 
ologists have  been  interesting  themselves  as  never  before  in 
experimental  study  of  human  nutrition.  General  observa- 
tional study  of  the  dietary  of  different  nations  has  also  be- 
come more  widespread. 

It  has  been  found  that  under  the  same  conditions  of  liv- 
ing approximately  the  same  food-constituents  are  consumed, 
and  in  the  same  relative  amounts,  the  world  over ;  but  they 
are  often  obtained  from  different  foods  in  different  lands 
according  to  the  food-production  of  the  various  countries. 
In  France,  for  instance,  liberal  use  is  made  of  bread. 

France  has  just  concluded  a  study  of  the  diet  of  its  people. 

{Paris ^  France^  for  nearly  j^ooo^ooo  persons  during  20  yrs. 
Computed  by  A.  Gautier) 

French    Daily    Diet  (in  grams  ;  average  from  investigation  noted  above) 


Vegetable 

Animal 

Inorganic 

Bread 
420 

Green 
vegetables 

250 

Pota- 
toes 

100 

Cereals 
40 

Sugar 
40 

Fruits 
70 

Wines 
etc. 

Meat 
200 

Eggs 
24 

Cheese 
8 

Butter 
and  oil 

28 

Milk 
213 

Salt 
20 

Water 
950 

Food-Constituents  in  the  Foods  Consumed 


Protein 

Fats 

Carbohydrates 

Calories  (heat-energy  units  in  foods) 

97  gm- 

58  gm. 

418  gm. 

2500  + 

General  Average   Standard  for  Man  at  Moderate  Work 


Protein 

Fats 

Carbohydrates 

Calories 

100  gm. 

100  gm. 

300-350  gm. 

2500-2700  — 

Compare  number  of  grams  of  food-constituents  in  French  dietary  with 
general  standard. 


LIVING— HUMAN  NUTRITION  —  FOOD-SCIENCE 


159 


FOOD-SCIENCE 


ffl?j 


HUMAN  NUTRITION 


Sources  —  Production  —  Preparation  in  general  1 6 1   p 

Food- Study  —  Food  in  Combination  —  Food  and  Diet  1 62-3 
Food-Needs  —  Human  Body  —  Food-Uses  164-5 

Nutrition-Aids  —  Digestion  —  Digestion-Needs  1 66-y 

Diet-Science  —  Food  Custom  —  Mixed  Diet  168-9 

Scientific  Diet  —  Food  Habits  —  Diet  Facts  170-1 

Building  Foods  —  Diet- Elements  —  Energy- Foods  1 72-3 
Digestion  Foods  —  Diet- Factors  —  Protective  Foods  174-5 
Foods  Concentrated  :   Natural  —  Commercial  i  j6-j 

Life  and  Food  —  Kinds  of  Food  —  Living  and  Food  1 78-9 
Seasonal  Diet  —  Diet-Composition  —  Daily  Diet  1 80-1 
Age  and  Work  —  Food  and  Income  182-3 

Population  —  Age  —  Race  —  Nationality  184-5 

Food- Production  —  Quantity  —  Value  —  Availability  1 86-7 
Food-Composition  —  Combination  —  Tabulation         1 88-93 
Menus  :  Types  —  Adjustments  —  Construction  194-5 

Digestibility  —  Seasoning  Food  —  Palatability  196-9 

Life  Food  —  Health  —  Energy  —  Work  Food  200-1 

Child- Food — Living — Growing — Illness — Vitality  202-9 
Youth-Diet — Adult  Diet — Old  Age — Foreign  Foods  2 10-5 
Body- Action  —  Digestion  —  Food-Utilization  2 1 6-9 

Egg- Refrigeration  —  Fish-Shipping  220-1 

Calculation  of  Dietaries  —  Food  and  Health  222-4 

Production  of  food,  specific  foods,  food-manufacture,  and 
commerce  have  been  considered. 

Consicmptioji  of  food,  though  as  yet  less  under  the  direc- 
tion of  science  than  the  more  external  activities  in  connection 
with  food,  is  in  no  less  need  of  scientific  regulation. 

Selection  and  preparatiori  of  food  determine  largely  the 
adjustment  of  diet  to  human  life. 

160  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


SOURCES  —  PRODUCTION 


fii?i 


PREPARATION  —  UTILIZATION 


Nature  supplies  food  ;  men  and  women  cultivate  it ;  women 
and  men  prepare  it ;  humanity  needs  it  and  eats  it.  Hu- 
man life  continues  through  food  nourishment ;  work  is  done 
by  food-energy.  Strength  and  health  depend  upon  the  food 
eaten,  its  kind,  combination,  quantity,  quality. 

Eating  is  a  common  physical  necessity  of  all  living  things. 

Doing  and  learning  are  both  needed  to  produce,  choose,  pre- 
pare the  foods  human  beings  require  for  life,  health,  strength, 
growth,  work. 

Skill  and  specific  scientific  knowledge  are  required  for  the 
best  production  of  food  to-day.  Individual  producers  therefore 
no  longer  attempt  to  grow  everything,  but  simply  what  can  be 
well  and  economically  grown  together.  Only  what  cannot  be 
thus  grown  in  a  locality  needs  to  be  brought  from  afar.  It  is 
thus  that  humanity  is  healthfully  nourished  and  so  occupied 
as  to  develop  both  physically  and  mentally. 

Knowledge  and  experience  concerning  wholesomeness  in 
food  is  a  general  necessity,  especially  as  factory  industry  com- 
mercially supplies  humanity  with  much  of  its  food.  Ability  to 
select  nutritious  food  continues  an  urgent  need  even  when  food 
is  prepared  outside  of  the  home. 

Humanity  is  increasingly  studying  its  food-needs  and  how 
to  meet  these  more  adequately,  yet  less  laboriously. 

Food  serves  a  human  purpose  only  as  it  nourishes  humanity. 

Science  studies  what  is  happening  to  find  how  living  may  be 
made  so  to  interwork  with  nature  as  to  make  life  stronger,  more 
wholesome,  and  human  well-being  the  natural  state  of  humanity. 

Food-Science  is  a  study  of  Hnman  Foods  and  Human  Nu- 
trition (that  is,  the  way  the  body  uses  food),  to  learn  how  to 
promote  Human  Nourishment,  hence  Htimaji  Health,  through 
such  Food  Habits  as  establish  Digestion-Efficiency, 

FOOD-SCIENCE  —  HUMAN  NUTRITION  161 


FOOD-STUDY 


Hm 


FOOD 


During  early  ages  of  human  life,  humanity  ate  what  nature 
provided  unaided.  Man  then  simply  sought  plants  and  animals 
for  food.  Later,  as  human  homes  became  more  settled,  food 
began  to  be  produced  by  man.  He  worked  with  nature  to  raise 
near  his  home  the  foods  the  family  needed  in  order  to  live, 
grow,  work. 

Cultivation  of  foods  suited  to  human  needs  has  increased 
as  humanity  has  lived  on.  Preparation  of  food  has  also  been 
extended.  As  humanity  has  itself  become  more  intelligent,  it 
has  begun  to  study  its  food  and  how  this  nourishes  it.  Seeking 
food  —  producing,  preparing,  studying  it  —  is  teaching  human- 
ity what  and  how  it  needs  to  eat  for  health,  strength,  length  of 
life.  Thus  is  learned  what  the  need  for  food  is  under  different 
conditions,  what  food  is  and  does,  how  food  should  be  pre- 
pared, and  how  the  body  can  use  it. 

Producing  and  preparing  food  are  everyday,  necessary 
activities.  They  are  world-wide  occupations  of  women  and 
men  and  have  been  throughout  the  civilized  life  of  human- 
ity. The  well-being  of  humanity,  its  ability  to  grow,  and  its 
power  to  work,  require  that  good  food  be  produced  and  be 
well  prepared. 

When  one  does  not  eat,  he  feels  hungry ;  he  needs  food. 
If  hunger  continues  unsatisfied,  there  is  loss  of  strength.  But 
after  eating,  strength  returns  and  one  feels  like  being  active 
again  or  at  work.  When  food  is  cooked,  it  often  seems  easier 
to  eat,  and  many  foods  taste  better.  But  all  foods  are  not  more 
digestible  when  cooked  ;  eggs,  for  example,  are  not.  Cooking 
seems  to  do  something  to  food.  Foods  do  not  all  seem  alike, 
but  all  seem  to  do  something  for  the  human  body. 

What  a  food  does  in  the  human  body  to  nourish  it  and  what 
happens  when  a  food  is  cooked  depend  upon  what  the  food  is. 

162  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


IN  COMBINATION 


miH 


FOOD  AND  DIET 


In  general,  food  is  considered  animal  and  vegetable,  because 
it  comes  from  animals  and  plants.  But  to  know  what  food 
does  for  physical  growth,  energy,  and  health  requires  that  one 
know  more  about  foods  than  simply  that  they  are  animal  and 
vegetable. 

It  is  through  study  of  food  that  one  learns  what  food  does 
for  the  body  and  how  it  does  this ;  how  cooking  can  aid 
in  doing  it ;  and  how  different  kinds  of  food  help  the  body 
differently.  Starchy  vegetables,  such  as  potatoes,  give  it 
energy.  What  is  known  about  what  to  eat,  how  to  cook, 
what  food  does,  needs  to  be  considered  together.  It  is  thus 
one  becomes  able  to  choose  and  prepare  foods  that  will  keep 
a  body  well,  help  it  to  grow,  and  make  it  strong  and  full  of 
energy. 

It  is  customary  to  eat  more  than  one  food  at  a  time  and  such 
foods  together  as  taste  and  seem  different,  as  bread  and  butter. 
Such  foods  have  been  found  to  be  different  and  are  called  by 
different  names,  as  meats,  vegetables,  fruits.  The  combination 
of  foods  generally  eaten  together  is  called  a  diet.  It  is  from 
foods  eaten  together  that  the  body  gets  the  nourishment  it 
needs  for  health,  energy,  and  ability  to  grow. 

It  is  therefore  a  diet,  a  food-combination,  —  foods  eaten  to- 
gether,— which  supports  life  and  provides  energy.  The  foods 
eaten  together  must  therefore  make  a  food-combination  that 
will  build  the  body,  keep  it  in  good  running  order,  and  supply 
it  with  energy. 

To  know  what  foods  should  be  combined  in  order  to  do  for 
the  body  what  food  can  do,  it  is  necessary  to  know  what  each 
food  is  and  does.  The  composition  of  foods  and  the  use  of 
each  to  the  body  need  therefore  to  be  known  in  order  to  know 
how  to  combine  foods  to  provide  for  growth,  energy,  health. 

FOOD-SCIENCE  —  HUMAN  NUTRITION  163 


FOOD-NEEDS 


HUMAN 


The  human  body  needs,  in  order  to  grow  or  to  be  active  or 
to  work  or  even  to  Hve,  to  take  in  air,  food,  water,  and  to  dis- 
pose of  the  waste  products  that  accumulate  in  it. 

The  activity  of  the  internal  organs  of  the  body,  such  as  that 
of  the  heart,  lungs,  etc.,  is  work  that  the  body  does.  This  is 
usually  done  without  the  person's  being  aware  of  it ;  some  of 
it  continues  during  sleep.  In  the  waking-hours  the  body- 
activity  usually  appears  to  be  work.  But  all  its  activity,  whether 
evident  or  not,  is  work  for  the  body  and  requires  energy. 

The  body  gets  its  energy  to  do  this  work  from  food.  As 
the  body  is  active  even  in  living,  it  wears  out  and  needs  re- 
pair. It  takes  from  food  the  materials  that  it  needs  for 
repair  and  to  keep  itself  in  good  running  order.  If  one  is 
growing  physically,  as  all  do  until  the  twenty-fifth  year,  the 
body  gets  the  materials  it  needs  iox  growth  from  food.  How 
the  body  uses  food  for  warmth,  work,  repair,  and  growth, 
physiology  tells. 

It  has  been  found  that  some  foods  that  will  give  the  body 
energy  will  not  provide  for  its  repair  and  growth  ;  such  are  fats, 
sugar,  and  many  vegetables.  As  the  body  needs  repair  every 
day,  it  must  be  clearly  known  what  kind  of  food  or  what  in 
food  will  repair  the  body-tissues,  as  activity  wears  these  out ; 
also  what  kind  of  food  or  what  in  food  promotes  growth,  and 
whether  what  is  necessary  for  repair,  growth,  warmth,  and  en- 
ergy is  in  the  foods  being  eaten. 

It  has  also  been  found  that  when  such  a  combination  of  foods 
is  eaten  as  will  do  all  that  food  can  for  the  body,  each  food  in 
it  is  more  fully  used  by  the  body  than  when  eaten  alone. 

Growth,  repair,  health,  heat,  energy,  for  the  human  body  must  come 
from  food.  The  body  needs  also  air  and  water ;  likewise  care  and 
regulation  of  body-activity. 

164  FOOD—  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


Fm 


BODY  m  n  FOOD-USES 

It  has  been  learned  through  science  that  the  food  taken  into 
the  human  body  is  broken  up  by  digestive  agencies.  It  is  then 
made  over  for  body-use  and  body-tissue  for  repair  or  growth. 
Energy  is  provided  by  the  heat  generated  as  the  body-tissue 
breaks  down  in  working  and  as  the  food  unites  with  the  oxygen 
of  the  air  breathed  in  by  the  body.  In  some  respects  this  ac- 
tion is  similar  to  the  production  of  heat  as  fuel  burns.  As  fuel 
burns  it  unites  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air  in  the  stove ;  heat 
is  thus  produced.  This  heat  in  the  body  supplies  the  body-heat 
and  is  converted  into  the  energy  that  the  body  uses  as  it  works, 
as  heat  in  the  stove  may  boil  water. 

But  no  machine,  it  must  be  remembered,  has  the  power  of 
self-repair  through  simply  the  energy  fuel  gives  it.  Self -repair 
and  growth  come  only  with  life,  so  the  body  has  in  its  power 
of  self-repair  and  growth  what  all  machines  lack. 

It  has  also  been  learned  that  food  and  the  human  body  are 
composed  of  the  same  constituents,  five  in  all.  Though  most 
foods  contain  all  five  constituents  in  some  quantity,  all  are  not 
present  in  the  same  quantity  in  the  same  food,  nor  are  the 
quantities  of  the  different  constituents  in  any  food  the  same 
as  in  any  other. 

It  is  the  chief  constituent  of  a  food  which  gives  it  its  prin- 
cipal use  in  the  diet ;  but  all  that  is  edible  in  a  food  is  used 
in  the  body. 

The  food  constituents  that  build  and  repair  {protein  and  min- 
eral salts)  are  in  largest  quantity  in  eggs,  milk,  cheese, 
meats,  grains. 
Those  that  give  heat  a7id  energy  {carbohydrates  and  fats)  are 

principally  in  starchy  vegetables,  sugar,  fats,  oils. 
Those  that  especially  aid  the  body  in  keeping  itself  in  condi- 
tion to  nse  its  food  2.re  green  vegetables  and  fruits. 

FOOD-SCIENCE —HUMAN  NUTRITION  165 


NUTRITION-AroS 


HI?) 


DIGESTION  OF 


The  body  is  a  living  organism  ;  it  needs  to  be  active  as  well 
as  supplied  with  the  air,  water,  food,  that  will  so  nourish  it  as 
to  make  effective  activity  possible  to  it.  Its  internal  activity 
must  itself  be  sustained  for  health  and  strength  of  body.  Diges- 
tion of  food  is  as  important  to  nourishment  as  is  food  itself.  A 
body  that  cannot  digest  food  cannot  be  nourished  ;  a  food  that 
cannot  be  digested  cannot  provide  sustenance'. 

It  is  therefore  as  important  to  make  and  keep  a  body  whole- 
somely active  in  all  its  functions  as  to  supply  the  food  materials 
it  needs.  Oversparing  a  body  in  health  weakens  it ;  in  ill- 
ness such  care  is  often  its  temporary  need.  To  make  a  body 
able  to  use  all  usual  foods  is  its  health-necessity.  To  prepare 
foods  so  that  the  body-processes  are  not  utilized  in  digest- 
ing the  food  tends  to  incapacitate  the  digestive  tract  by  non- 
use.  Whatever  aids  in  bringing  about  the  above,  necessary 
conditions  aids  nutrition  ;  that  is,  the  nourishing  of  the  body 
by  the  utilization  of  food. 

Pitre  air  in  abundance  is  imperative  for  assimilation  of 
food,  as  it  is  food  combining  with  oxygen  which  gives  heat- 
energy  and  brings  food  into  form  for  transformation  into 
body-tissue.  Deprived  of  air  a  body  cannot  be  nourished,  no 
matter  what  it  may  be  fed.  If  air  is  cut  off  from  a  candle 
or  lamp,  the  flame  dies  down  and  goes  out ;  if  air  is  cut  off 
from  a  fire,  it  dies  out ;  if  air  is  exhausted  in  a  building, 
as  it  may  be  in  a  fire,  people  die  because  they  cannot 
breathe.  If  the  air-supply  is  limited  where  people  live  or 
work,  their  food  is  not  digested.  Their  bodies  are  harmed 
in  other  ways  by  lack  of  air.  If  impure  air  is  breathed,  it  acts 
as  would  deficiency  of  air,  and  also  causes  such  diseases  as 
its  impurities  propagate. 

The  air-need  is  30  cu.  ft.  per  hour  per  person. 

166  FOOD  "-WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


FOOD 


Hm 


DIGESTION-NEEDS 


No  less  imperative  than  an  abundance  of  pure  air  to  diges- 
tion of  food  is  plenty  of  pure  water.  Water  and  air  perform 
different  functions,  hence  the  necessity  of  both.  Their  pu- 
rity is  important  for  all.  Water  liquefies  food  and  aids  in  its 
transformation ;  air  effects  the  oxidation  of  food,  through  which 
it  is  made  useful  to  the  body. 

Besides  the  water  taken  in  food  (see  Food-Composition)  usu- 
ally about  three  pints  (or  six  glasses)  of  water  a  day  is  advised 
as  drinking-water.  The  habit  of  drinking  water  between  meals 
should  be  formed,  for  then  water  does  not  overdilute  diges- 
tive juices  at  the  time  they  are  needed  to  digest  the  food  eaten 
at  meals.  Drinking  water  between  meals  has  the  further  ad- 
vantage of  bringing  it  into  the  digestive  tract  at  the  time  the 
food  eaten  needs  to  be  further  liquefied.  At  night  and  in  the 
morning  (^  hr.  before  breakfast)  a  glass  of  water  further  aids 
nutrition  by  assisting  in  the  removal  of  waste  products. 

Rest  no  less  than  activity  is  essential  to  health  of  digestion 
as  it  is  to  health  of  body.  The  digestive  tract  needs  an  abun- 
dant blood-supply  when  actively  digesting  food.  As  extreme 
physical  or  mental  activity  prevents  this,  there  is  need  to  lessen 
both  for  at  least  half  an  hour  after  meals,  to  which  one  should 
come  not  overtired,  as  exhaustion  decreases  digestive  activity. 
Sleep  does  too,  hence  the  inadvisability  of  sleeping  immediately 
after  eating.  The  digestive  tract  itself  needs  a  period  of  rest  be- 
tween those  of  activity ;  eating  too  frequently  prevents  digestive 
recuperation.  To  digest  food  and  to  keep  itself  free  from  accu- 
mulated waste  products  the  digestive  tract  itself  needs  health. 

Activity  alternating  with  rest,  leisure  to  digest  a  suitable 
supply  of  wholesome  food,  periodic  thorough  removal  of  waste 
products,  secure  health  of  body  and  digestion  of  the  food  the 
body  needs  for  its  life  and  work. 

FOOD-SCIENCE  —  HUMAN  NUTRITION  167 


DIET-SCIENCE 


FHH 


FOOD- 


By  custom,  humanity  has  eaten  a  mixed  diet;  that  is,  a  com- 
bination of  animal  and  vegetable  food  substances.  In  America 
three  meals  a  day  are  usual ;  in  England,  four  (tea  in  the  after- 
noon) ;  and  in  France,  two,  with  coffee  and  rolls  in  the  morning. 

Illness  and  infancy  have  needed  and  secured  special  diets 
everywhere  civilized  life  has  penetrated.  Children  are  not  just 
little  adults.  Their  bodies  are  growing  not  simply  larger  but 
are  in  some  respects  themselves  being  formed.  Teeth  illustrate 
this.  Other  body-formation  is  also  going  on  which  is  no  less 
important,  though  not  so  easily  seen  as  is  the  coming  of  teeth. 
Since  food  is  for  the  body  to  use,  food  for  children  must  be 
such  as  the  developing  body  of  childhood  can  use.  (See  p.  202.) 

In  recent  years,  science  has  learned  much  through  obser- 
vation and  experiment  about  the  effect  of  food  on  health  and 
physical  development.  This  was  not  so  fully  known  in  earlier 
times.  The  kinds  and  quantities  of  food  needed  to  sustain  life, 
to  provide  energy,  to  promote  development,  to  maintain  health, 
and  to  regulate  body-activity  are  now  carefully  studied.  What 
is  known  is  also  being  more  generally  taught,  that  through 
such  knowledge  humanity  may  have  health  for  wholesome 
living,  strength  to  work,  length  of  active  life. 

As  results  of  scientific  study,  more  thorough  mastication 
than  is  usual  is  urged  for  all ;  for  all  adults  not  at  hard  phys- 
ical labor,  less  food ;  for  all  persons  in  health,  a  mixed  diet. 
It  is  thus  that  the  digestive  tract  is  used  as  a  whole  ;  it  is  such 
use  of  it  that  keeps  it  in  health. 

Excess  of  food  overworks  the  human  system  and  over- 
burdens it  with  waste  products.  Thus  may  be  caused  indo- 
lence, restlessness,  illness.  Lack  of  thorough  mastication 
prevents  full  digestion  of  the  food  eaten.  Health  and  econ- 
omy are  therefore  both  promoted  by  thorough  mastication, 

168  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


CUSTOM 


vm 


MIXED  DIET 


Though  a  mixed  diet  is  advised,  there  is  a  distinct  choice 
in  the  desirabihty  of  the  animal  foods  eaten.  Less  red  meat 
is  urged ;  it  contains  substances  (extractives)  that  are  stimu- 
lating rather  than  nourishing.  In  moderation  their  stimulation 
may  sometimes  be  wholesome.  In  excess  it  is  disadvantageous  ; 
it  harms,  whereas  food  that  nourishes  helps  the  body  to  grow, 
to  care  for  its  own  action,  and  to  do  the  work  the  person  does. 
Eggs,  milk,  and  milk-products,  as  cheese,  are  animal  foods  with- 
out extractives,  as  are  also  white  meats,  such  as  poultry  and  fish. 

It  is  sometimes  stated  that  some  nations,  and  such  of  all 
nations  as  are  very  limited  in  their  food-supply,  live  mainly,  if 
not  entirely,  upon  a  vegetable  diet  and  secure  their  building- 
food  material  from  grains.  Science  finds  this  is  not  the  gen- 
eral practice  anywhere.  Rice  in  the  Orient  is  supplemented 
by  fish  and  poultry,  the  potato  of  Ireland  by  bacon,  the  grain 
foods  of  the  workers  of  continental  Europe  by  cheese,  the  corn- 
meal  of  our  Southern  states  by  eggs  and  poultry. 

Wherever  fresh  meat  cannot  be  kept  or  afforded,  animal 
foods  that  can  be  found  or  raised  are  everywhere  somewhat 
used.  On  the  seacoast  and  along  streams  fish  abound  and  are 
eaten.  Inland  game  and  the  products  of  domestic  animals,  as 
milk  and  eggs,  are  eaten  where  the  animals  themselves  would 
be  too  costly  for  food,  or  for  other  reason  would  not  be  so  used. 

Grains  thoroughly  masticated  after  being  thoroughly  cooked 
build  the  body.  Yet  alone  they  cannot  do  all  that  is  done  by  a 
mixed  diet.  To  the  young  it  brings  foods  prepared  by  nature  for 
animal  young,  as  are  milk  and  eggs.  While  children  are  them- 
selves being  formed  and  learning  to  eat  adult-diet,  they  need 
such  nature-prepared  building  food.  Mixed  diet  also  makes,  for 
all,  body-tissues  that  retain  elasticity  in  advanced  age.  Such 
tissue  not  only  lasts  long  but  is  capable  of  prolonged  activity. 

FOOD-SCIENCE  —  HUMAN  NUTRITION  169 


SCIENTIFIC  DIET 


mn 


FOOD- 


What  one  is  used  to  eating  often  seems  satisfying,  even  when 
it  is  not  a  satisfactory  diet  and  is  not  doing  for  the  body  what 
only  food  in  the  combination  needed  can  do.  Food  habits  are 
formed  as  one  eats  and  Hves  ;  they  largely  control  the  choice 
of  food.  This  strength  of  habits  should  be  used  to  aid  the  body, 
by  making  the  diet  needed  by  the  person  the  usual  familiar 
diet.  The  kind  of  food-combination  that  science  has  learned 
will  give  physical  endurance  and  energy,  will  build  and  repair 
the  body  and  assist  it  in  using  its  food,  is  the  necessity  of  every 
one  and  can  be  known  by  all.  For  children  to  form  such  a 
habit  as  that  of  tea-  and  coffee-drinking  is  to  rob  them  of 
the  opportunity  of  having  well-nourished  bodies. 

Physical  construction  of  the  body,  power  of  self-repair, 
living-energy  in  life-activity,  all  depend  upon  the  food-regulation 
of  the  person  ;  hence  the  importance  of  food  habits,  food  tastes, 
and  food  practices.  If  the  food  eaten  is  not  able  to  do  these 
things,  they  are  not  done  or  only  partly  done.  The  body  that 
is  poorly  nourished  may  live  and  do  some  work,  but  it  is  with- 
out resistance  to  disease,  if  not  itself  diseased.  It  is  less  strong 
as  it  is  less  well,  also  less  effective  in  whatever  it  does. 

If  the  food  eaten  is  not  used  by  the  body,  because  the  food 
chosen  does  not  meet  the  need  there  is  for  food,  the  food  is 
not  only  wasted  but  overburdens  the  body  with  food-waste ; 
this  hinders  its  action  and  if  unremoved  poisons  it.  Though 
building,  energy,  digestion  foods  can,  as  stated  above,  be  found 
in  either  the  animal  foods  or  in  vegetable,  were  they  exclusively 
taken  from  either,  the  body  would  be  overworked.  Less  work 
is  required  to  use  food  from  both  together,  because  each  food 
then  digests  more  easily  and  fully,  and  the  digestive  tract  in 
being  thus  used  as  a  whole  works  better  itself  than  when  only 
part  of  it  is  used. 

170  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


HABITS 


fflfi 


DIET  FACTS 


Food  habits,  like  all  habits,  save  work  when  they  are  such  as 
help,  and  make  work  when  they  are  such  as  hinder.  They  may 
nourish  or  they  may  prevent  nutrition.  As  the  body  must  not 
be  habitually  overburdened  with  food  or  overworked  by  it,  so 
it  must  not  be  undersupplied  or  underexercised  in  using  food. 

In  excessive  meat  diet  extractives  overstimulate  the  body ; 
in  excessive  vegetable  diet  vegetable  fiber  overirritates  the 
digestive  tract.  Excess  of  building  food  overworks  the  kid- 
neys ;  excess  of  energy  food  overweights  the  body  with  fat 
that  may  make  it  idle  instead  of  active. 

A  diet  of  food  deficient  in  the  food-constituents  needed 
leaves  the  body  undernourished.  This  happens  no  matter  how 
much  food  is  eaten,  if  it  is  not  of  the  kinds  that  together  make* 
the  food-combination  needed.  An  undernourished  body  is 
without  energy  or  health  ;  hence  the  importance  to  human  life 
of  knowing  and  using  in  living  what  science  has  learned  about : 

(i)  Which  food-constituents  different  foods  contain. 

(2)  How  much  of  the  different  food-constituents  is  present  in  a  given 

amount  (as  i  lb.)  of  any  food. 

(3)  What  amounts  of  each  food-constituent  the  body  needs  in  a  given 

time,  as  a  day  or  week. 

Two  of  the  five  food-constituents  (protein,  carbohydrate,  fat, 
mineral  salts,  water)  do  not  need  constant  consideration  if  a 
mixed  diet  of  wholesome  natural  food  is  eaten  ;  these  constit- 
uents are  mineral  salts  and  water.  A  mixed  diet  gives  the 
mineral  salts  needed  in  health.  When  an  excess  of  mineral 
salts  is  needed,  as  in  growth  and  some  types  of  illness  (as  bone- 
deterioration,  such  as  rickets  in  children),  milk  and  eggs  should 
be  eaten  in  larger  quantities  ;  these  provide  the  additional  salts 
then  required.  Water  is  needed  by  the  body  in  relatively  large 
quantity.   It  is  also  present  in  most  foods  in  large  proportion. 

FOOD-SCIENCE  —  HUMAN  NUTRITION  1 71 


BUILDING  FOODS 


Hm 


DIET- 


When  one  is  growing,  food  that  will  build  physically  is  es- 
pecially needed  and  should  be  eaten.  All  body-activity,  even 
simply  living,  wears  the  body  out  so  that  it  needs  repair  ;  that 
is,  rebuilding  of  its  tissues. 

The  body  contains  more  water  than  any  other  constituent. 
Water  keeps  the  liquids  of  the  body,  as  blood,  in  a  fluid  state. 
The  next  largest  quantity  of  a  body-constituent  is  mineral  salts  ; 
the  body-skeleton  is  mainly  mineral  matter.  Protein,  the 
tissue-substance,  is  next  in  quantity  ;  it  forms  tissue,  as  body- 
muscle.  Body-fat  is  next.  Carbohydrate  is  least  and  in  very 
small  quantity  in  the  body. 

^  It  is  strength  of  body  which  tissue-building  food  (protein)  promotes. 
It  forms  the  body  during  growth  ;  it  repairs  for  tissue-activity  as  one  lives 
and  works.  Beef  and  mutton  build,  repair,  spare  tissue,  and  stimulate. 
Chicken  and  oysters  do  not  stimulate.  Eggs,  milk,  cheese,  build,  repair, 
and  give  energy,  as  do  cereals,  breads,  graham  crackers,  macaroni.  Beans, 
peas,  lentils,  build,  repair,  and  give  energy.  Most  foods  do  this  somewhat. 
Mifieral  matter  builds  bone  and  aids  growth  and  body-activity  too. 

Science  finds  the  overeating  of  meat  one  of  the  mistakes  of 
human  diet.  Red  meats  through  their  extractives  may  so  stimu- 
late as  to  leave  a  body  feeling  alive  but  neither  strong  for  work 
nor  able  to  sustain  activity.  A  body  so  fed  may  tire  quickly  after 
•  eating  ;  it  may  feel  hungry  soon.  Constant  need  of  food  may 
keep  a  body  so  occupied  digesting  food  that  it  is  able  to  do  little 
else.    The  digestive  tract  may  be  worn  out  by  such  overuse. 

Even  the  tissue-formers  without  extractives  (eggs,  milk, 
white  meats,  grains),  if  overeaten,  require  the  body  to  dispose 
of  body-waste  and  food-waste  that  need  not  have  troubled  it, 
do  exhaust  it,  and  may  poison  it,  instead  of  repairing  it  for 
wholesome  working. 

For  the  quantity  of  tissue-forming  food  needed,  see  p.  222. 

172  FOOD —WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


ELEMENTS 


HH 


ENERGY  FOODS 


One  that  feels  full  of  life  and  is  active  has  energy.  The 
work  of  the  body  is  done  by  its  energy.  Even  a  well-formed 
strong  body  could  not  work  long  if  food  brought  no  energy- 
supply.  The  body  would  use  itself  for  the  energy  required  in 
living.  Hence  the  need  of  heat-energy  foods  for  body-heat  and 
activity,  and  building  foods  for  tissue-growth  and  repair.  It  is 
thus  that  the  body  is  aided  by  food  in  its  living  and  working 
and  not  hindered  by  unnecessary  waste  or  work. 

Energy  foods  form  the  largest  proportion  of  daily  food,  but 
enter  into  the  body-composition  in  the  least,  for  they  are  con- 
sumed for  current  body-heat  and  activity. 

It  is  activity  of  body  which  energy  foods  (carbohydrates  and 
fats)  promote.  These  provide  for  the  active  living  of  the  body 
itself  and  its  action  in  the  work  one  does. 

Starch,  as  in  starchy  vegetables  (potato,  rice),  grains  —  carbohydrates. 
Sugar,  as  in  sugar  mixtures  (cake,  candy),  fruits  (dates)  —  carbohydrates. 
Fat  (and  oil),  as  in  meats,  butter,  cream,  olive  and  other  edible  oils  —  fats. 

Starch  requires  prolonged  cooking  and  longer  digestion  than 
sugar  or  fat.  The  delayed  digestion  of  starchy  food  enables  it 
to  provide  energy  longer  after  eating  than  sugar  and  fat  energy 
foods.  Starchy  food  gives  endurance  in  activity.  But  were  it 
only  used  for  energy,  the  supply  of  energy  would  be  too  delayed 
and  the  digestive  tract  overworked  in  securing  from  starch 
alone  all  energy  needed.  It  might  also  be  overburdened  with 
vegetable  fiber,  with  which  starch  is  usually  combined  in  foods. 

Sugar  and  fat  are  therefore  also  necessary  heat-energy  foods. 
But  used  alone  they  would  require  too  continuous  eating  to 
sustain  energy,  because  used  so  quickly.  They  are  not  usually 
as  digestible  when  constantly  eaten  in  appreciable  quantities 
as  is  the  starch  in  potato  and  bread.  Sugar  and  starch  may 
store  fat  in  the  body.    Fat  in  food  probably  does  not. 

FOOD-SCIENCE  — HUMAN  NUTRITION  1 73 


DIGESTION  FOODS 


HHH 


DIET 


Though  it  is  eating  animal  and  vegetable  foods  together  that 
furthers  digestion  of  all  food  eaten,  there  are  some  foods  that 
seem  especially  to  promote  digestion.  Such,  rather  than  direct 
nourishment  of  the  body,  is  the  principal  use  in  the  diet  of 
many  fruits  and  green  vegetables.  These  foods- contain  water 
in  large  quantity  and  mineral  salts  in  large  proportion  to  all  their 
solid  constituents.  They  give  a  sense  of  freshness  and  well- 
being  by  enabling  the  body  to  do  all  its  work  well  through  being 
kept  in  good  running  order.  Mineral  salts  and  water  are  needed 
in  growth,  also  throughout  life  for  regulating  the  body-action 
within  the  body  itself. 

Green  vegetables  and  fruits  usually  also  contain  vegetable 
fiber  (cellulose)  in  relatively  large  quantity.  This  is  practically 
indigestible.  Its  presence  tends,  however,  to  increase  the  peri- 
staltic action  in  the  intestine.  This  aids  in  freeing  the  alimen- 
tary tract  of  food- waste  products.  When  these  are  not  removed, 
they  encourage  germ-life,  that  may  disorder  digestion,  even 
when  no  specific  disease,  such  as  typhoid  fever,  is  caused  by 
the  presence  of  disease-germs. 

Nature  has  produced  some  foods  that,  when  properly  used, 
help  the  body  to  work  without  itself  being  overworked  by 
digesting  the  food  that  life  and  work  require. 

Laxative  foods  are  such.  They  especially  aid  the  body  in 
keeping  itself  free  from  food-waste.  Such  foods  should  be 
used  instead  of  medicines  for  this  purpose.    These  are : 

Tomatoes,  onions,  spinach,  rhubarb,  green  vegetables  in  general. 
Apples,  peaches  (ripe),  orange-  and  grape-juice,  prunes,  dates,  figs. 
Cereals,  mush,  bread  (rye,  graham,  whole-wheat),  gingerbread. 
Olive-oil  at  night.    Water  at  night  and  in  morning  \  hr.  before  breakfast. 

Whatever  diet  will  do  for  the  body  is  more  wholesomely 
done  thus  than  in  any  other  way. 

174  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


FACTORS 


Hm 


PROTECTIVE  FOODS 


What  the  body  can  do  itself  in  utilizing  its  food,  it  needs  to 
do  in  health.  But  digesting  food  is  not  the  only  activity  of  the 
body.  Important  as  digestion  is,  it  needs  to  be  so  accomplished 
that  the  body  is  prepared  through  it  for  other  work  and  not 
simply  absorbed  in  its  own  living.  Though  all  unnecessary 
digestion  impairs  body  usefulness,  if  not  health  itself,  whole- 
some digestive  activity  is  essential  to  healthful  digestion. 

Fat  in  moderation  aids  the  general  working  of  the  body ; 
without  it  disorders  and  difficulties  ensue.  For  the  same 
w^eight  fat  furnishes  over  twice  the  quantity  of  heat-energy 
which  sugar  or  starch  can  produce.  Active  children  and  physi- 
cally laboring  adults  can  use  more  fat  than  others  use  fully  or 
digest  freely.  Fat  passes  as  heat-energy  and  is  probably  not 
stored  as  body-fat.  Sugar  and  starch  eaten  beyond  the  im- 
mediate need  of  the  body  become  body-fat.  Body-fat  protects 
other  body-tissue  from  use  for  energy  by  itself  furnishing  heat 
and  energy  first.  Fat-reserve  serves  thus  in  illness  and  food- 
deprivation  of  any  type.  Excess  fat  in  the  body  or  in  food 
usually  interferes  with  health. 

Tissue-sparing  is  a  function  of  some  protein  foods.  Gelatin 
(p.  94)  is  a  form  of  protein  which  will  not  build  tissue,  but 
by  being  present  in  the  diet  can  prevent  body-tissue  from  be- 
ing worn  out  by  work.  This  has  a  use  even  in  health,  as  the 
unnecessary  breaking  down  and  renewal  of  tissue  consumes 
energy.  All  needless  body-functioning  destroys  instead  of 
preserves  wholesome  body-activity  and  the  body  itself  in  a 
state  of  healthful  repair.  In  illness  tissue-sparers  are  often 
necessary.  They  save  a  body  weakened  by  disease  from  the 
drain  upon  it  that  would  otherwise  be  required  to  sustain  the 
work  of  repair  beyond  the  repair-need  absolutely  imperative 
to  preserve  life. 

FOOD-SCIENCE  —  HUMAN  NUTRITION  1 75 


CONCENTRATED  FOODS 


HFR 


NATURAL 


In  the  processes  of  nature  there  goes  on  all  the  time  a  break- 
ing down  of  complex  substances  into  simpler  and  a  building 
up  of  simple  substances  into  more  complex.  Bacteria  break 
down  complex  substances  ;  plants  and  animals  utilize  these. 
Human  bodies  take  for  food  the  more  complex  substances  pre- 
pared in  plants  and  animals.  Waste  products  of  body-activity 
are  complex ;  bacteria  break  these  down  and  return  simpler 
forms  to  the  soil  and  atmosphere  for  nature's  further  use. 

Though  human  foods  have  concentrated  in  them  many  chem- 
ically complex  substances,  study  of  food-composition  has  shown 
that  all  foods  are  not  equally  complex  or  condensed.  Some  are 
principally  water  ;  the  solid  nutrients  in  these  may  be  relatively 
small.  Other  foods  show  condensed  solid  nutrient  substances, 
as  do  grains,  but  without  all  of  these  always  being  fully  available 
as  digestible  human  food.  Still  others  contain  very  little  that 
is  not  nutritive,  and  in  a  form  to  be  fully  assimilated  by  the  body. 
(See  eggs,  p.  io8.)    Such  are  nature's  concentrated  foods. 

Such  foods  are  of  great  value,  but  they  cannot  be  used  ex- 
clusively. As  the  body  is  and  now  works  it  needs  some  bulk 
to  its  food  for  its  digestive  tract  to  function.  In  the  variety 
in  which  nature  makes  food  available  much  that  is  found  in 
food  that  is  not  itself  nourishing  may  aid  the  body  in  utilizing 
food,  as  does  water.  It  is,  however,  important  in  what  quantity 
even  natural  constituents  in  food,  as  cellulose,  be  eaten,  if  not 
themselves  nutrients,  that  is,  nourishing  substances.  Though 
such  non-nutrients  may  aid  digestion  somewhat,  they  do  not 
supply  the  material  that  makes  either  the  body  or  its  energy. 

Concentrated  foods  of  nature,  though  they  contain  in  them- 
selves all  food-constituents  that  nourish  and  are  free  from  the 
dangers  of  condensed  foods  of  commerce,  are  not  all-sufficient 
as  human  diet,  exceedingly  important  factors  as  they  are  in  it. 

176  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


COMMERCIAL 


fim 


PREPARED  FOODS 


Feeding  the  body  food  it  cannot  use  can  starve  it.  Preparing 
food  so  that  it  does  not  require  activity  of  the  entire  digestive 
tract  may  incapacitate  the  body.  Human  food  needs  to  be  in 
wholesome  condition,  properly  chosen  and  prepared,  and  the 
body  itself  be  so  cared  for  that  it  is  well  and  works  well  in  its 
living-processes.    It  is  thus  that  the  body  is  nourished. 

Predigested  foods  are  usually  prepared  with  a  ferment  that 
does  part  of  the  work  of  the  digestive  juices.  Such  a  food 
uses  the  alimentary  tract  only  partially,  whereas  it  needs  to 
be  fully  active  to  be  well  itself.  In  illness,  predigested  foods 
are  sometimes  needed.  Peptonized  foods  serve  to  nourish  a 
body  that  cannot  otherwise  nourish  itself.  Fermented  foods,  as 
koumiss,  may  save  the  body  similarly  when  this  is  its  need. 

Prepared  foods  may  by  factory  preparation  of  food  materials 
lessen  home  work.  Cereals  are  commercially  so  prepared. 
They  keep  less  well  when  partially  cooked  and  are  more  expen- 
sive. They  take  up  water  as  cooked,  and  do  not  then  resist 
further  changes  that  they  would  in  the  dry  state.  The  moisture 
absorbed  increases  the  weight.  Such  preparation  saves  work 
in  the  home,  and  home  fuel  for  prolonged  cooking.  There  is, 
however,  in  all  such  commercial  food-preparation  the  danger 
that  the  home  completion  of  the  process  may  be  insufficient. 
This  often  happens  with  cereals  and  results  in  such  prepared 
foods  being  used  underprepared.  Other  prepared  foods  may 
lose  water ;  all  condensed-  and  powdered-milk  preparations 
do.    The  high  heating  of  milk  changes  its  composition. 

All  canned,  preserved,  dried,  steamed,  or  otherwise  cooked 
foods  are  prepared  for  keeping  or  for  digestion.  Any  aid  that 
makes  a  food  digestible  is  desirable,  but  any  effort  to  digest  it 
externally  may  prove  a  deprivation  by  making  unnecessary  the 
body-activity  that  is  essential  to  healthful  digestive  functioning. 

FOOD'SCIENCE  —  HUMAN  NUTRITION  1 77 


LIFE  AND  FOOD 


Fm 


KINDS 


Kinds  and  amounts  of  food  are  both  important  to  health. 
They  act  together  in  securing  health.  Both  must  change  some- 
what under  different  conditions  of  life  if  food  is  to  aid  a  body 
in  living  and  working  effectively.  The  life  of  the  body  itself 
requires  food ;  the  work  of  the  body  does,  too.  The  age  of 
the  person,  the  size,  sex,  health ;  the  work ;  the  climate,  season, 
—  all  affect  both  the  kinds  and  amounts  of  food  needed.  The 
location  and  circumstances  affect  the  food-supply  of  families. 

Amounts  and  kinds  of  food  must  not  only  provide  adequately 
for  the  body-needs  but  must  supply  foods  that  can  be  used 
under  the  conditions  prevailing.  A  child  is  learning  to  eat ; 
an  adult  is  using  food  to  work  ;  the  aged  are  losing  the  ability 
to  use  food.  The  food-need  of  the  adult  of  very  active  physical 
life  differs  from  that  needed  for  less  muscular  exertion,  mainly 
in  the  energy-supply  necessary.  For  much  manual  work  much 
heat-energy  is  needed  ;  for  a  life  of  little  physical  activity  more 
digestion  food-aid  is  required ;  for  age  and  childhood  easily 
digested  food  is  essential.  But  the  power  to  digest  food  is 
going  from  the  aged  and  coming  to  the  child.  The  aged  are 
becoming  increasingly  inactive,  with  tissues  that  are  worn,  not 
developing  as  are  a  child's.  The  aged  have  decreased  need 
for  energy  food  for  work,  but  somewhat  increased  need  for 
body-heat  and  body-repair. 

Building  foods,  heat-energy,  and  digestion  foods  are  all 
needed  always.  Which  foods  are  preferable  under  different 
conditions,  and  why  they  are,  has  been  discussed.  Because 
most  foods  contain  some  of  all  constituents  that  build,  give 
energy,  and  aid  digestion,  a  very  limited  food-supply  will  keep 
alive  those  restricted  to  it.  But  for  vigor  and  health  the  food- 
supply  needs  to  be  plentiful,  varied,  wholesome,  and  the  diet 
selected  in  accord  with  the  food-needs  of  those  it  feeds. 

178  FOOD --WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


OF  FOOD 


\=m 


LIVING  AND  FOOD 


In  health  the  same  person  under  the  same  conditions  of 
Hving  needs  the  same  food-constituents  and  in  the  same  quan- 
tity, but  needs  to  obtain  these  from  a  variety  of  foods.  Starchy 
vegetables  are  of  many  kinds,  as  are  also  green  ;  so  are  fruits, 
grains,  dairy-products,  and  animal  foods.  Though  no  two  foods 
are  exactly  alike,  a  class  of  foods  serves  in  general  the  same 
food-purpose.  How  foods  differ  from  one  another  and  how 
the  classes  of  foods  differ  is  shown  on  pp.  190-193. 

Adults  can  usually  digest  all  kinds  of  food  and  all  the  foods 
of  each  kind.  That  they  may  be  able  to  do  so  it  is,  however, 
necessary  that  as  they  mature  they  learn  to  eat  every  common 
food.    For  diet-restrictions  in  childhood,  see  pp.  202-205. 

The  kinds  of  food  a  family  has  eaten,  it  usually  prefers.  The 
kinds  that  have  prevailed  in  a  locality  are  usually  preferred 
there.  Sometimes  an  earlier  need  for  a  kind  of  diet  passes, 
but  leaves  that  diet  as  the  food  habit  of  the  district.  It  is  often 
found  that  where  it  was  originally  hard  to  grow  or  get  food  a 
greater  variety  is  not  desired  even  when  it  becomes  possible. 
Often  new  foods  cannot  be  easily  introduced  even  when  they 
are  desirable  and  obtainable ;  this  is  most  frequent  where  for 
a  long  time  few  foods  have  been  eaten. 

Where  much  physical  activity,  especially  in  the  open  air,  has 
been  usual,  as  in  pioneer  times  or  in  agricultural  districts,  an 
energy-giving  diet  containing  much  starch,  sugar,  and  fat  is 
needed.  If  the  conditions  of  life  change  and  the  food  habits 
are  not  adjusted  to  the  change,  the  former  diet  may  cause  ill- 
ness. The  breakfast  of  colonial  days  in  New  England  would 
menace  the  health  of  any  one  not  doing  hard  work  out-of-doors. 
The  need  to  change  diet  increases  with  travel  and  variation 
in  occupation  ;  the  ability  to  do  so  comes  with  the  habit  of 
eating  many  kinds  of  food. 

FOOD-SCIENCE  —  HUMAN  NUTRITION  1 79 


SEASONAL  DIET 


Ffn 


DEBT- 


As  seasons  change,  foods  do  too,  in  availability  and  quality. 
The  food-needs  of  the  body  are  also  altered  by  temperature 
changes,  as  they  are  by  change  from  one  climate  to  another. 

When  it  is  cold,  heat-giving  food  needs  to  be  increased,  be- 
cause the  body  then  loses  heat  more  rapidly  ;  it  .is  also  usually 
more  active  in  cold  weather.  In  warm,  more  liquid  and  refresh- 
ing food  is  needed,  and  from  |  to  ^  less  food  than  in  winter. 

At  all  times  repair  food  is  required.  The  quantity  needed  is 
small  (I  lb.  or  less  daily  per  adult  person).  This  varies  less  for 
the  same  person  or  for  persons  of  like  maturity  than  do  other 
food-needs  ;  during  growth  this  is  increased  and  varies  more. 
As  growth  is  periodic  even  during  the  years  it  continues,  the 
food-need  it  occasions  varies  with  seasonal  growth  itself. 

Foods  that  keep  well  form  the  staple  food-supply  of  winter. 
Foods  as  they  grow  offer  the  variety  desirable  in  summer.  The 
fall  brings  uneven  weather  and  with  it  danger  of  disease  ;  this 
needs  to  be  met  with  a  substantial  regularly  sustained  food- 
supply  that  can  reenforce  physical  resistance  and  thus  main- 
tain health.  Spring  often  saps  vitality.  Food  then  needs  to  be 
palatable  and  plentiful ;  it  must  invigorate,  even  though  the 
desire  for  food  may  be  so  decreased  as  not  to  seek  adequate 
sustenance  for  the  body. 

Fruits  and  green  vegetables  are  desirable  at  all  seasons  but 
necessary  in  warmer  weather.  Thin  soups  and  light,  cold  des- 
serts aid  in  making  food  appetizing  in  summer.  Starchy  foods 
(as  heat-producing  flour  mixtures),  cereals,  sugars,  fatter  meats, 
thicker,  richer  soups,  supply  satisfactorily  the  food  supplement 
winter  requires.  In  warm  weather  breakfast  should  be  early 
and  the  evening  meal  after  the  heat  of  the  day  subsides,  for 
food  to  be  refreshing.  More  water  is  needed  in  summer  before 
retiring,  upon  rising,  and  between  meals. 

180  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


COMPOSITION 


HUH 


DAILY  DIET 


In  the  morning  the  body  is  rested  through  sleep  ;  at  night 
it  is  tired  ;  during  the  day  it  is  at  work.  In  getting  ready  to 
work  in  the  morning  it  needs  an  energy-supply  that  is  not  so 
heavy  as  to  burden  the  body  with  food-care  instead  of  provid- 
ing it  with  food-help.  Food  that  will  somewhat  spare  tissue, 
and  digestion-foods,  are  also  morning  food-needs. 

For  those  not  at  hard  physical  work  the  noon  food-need  is 
for  some  sustaining  energy  food  that  will  be  easily  digested, 
though  not  entirely  used  over-quickly  ;  also  slight  building  and 
refreshing  food.  At  night  the  adult  body  needs  repair,  some 
energy  food  that  will  be  readily  digested ;  also  some  laxative 
food,  but  no  highly  stimulating  food.  For  children's  needs, 
see  pp.  202-205. 

It  is  usual  to  consider  -|  the  daily  food  the  dinner-amount  and  ^  each 
the  breakfast  and  luncheon.  Meat  is  advised  not  more  than  once  a  day. 
Red  meat  (beef,  etc.)  should  alternate  with  white  (chicken,  etc.)  or  other  non- 
stimulating  animal  food  (eggs,  etc.).  At  noon  vegetable  building  food  is 
suitable,  for  then  the  starch  combined  with  it  has  an  opportunity  to  digest 
before  sleep  and  furnish  sustaining  energy  for  the  latter  part  of  the  wak- 
ing day.  As  ^  the  building  food  should  be  animal  and  ^  vegetable,  this 
gives  an  opportunity  to  arrange  it  so. 

The  quantities  of  food  desirable  and  the  differences  in  child- 
and  adult-diet  will  be  considered  later.  It  is  said  a  man  at  hard 
work  and  a  child  over  2  years  cannot  be  overfed ;  that  food 
enough  is  their  need.  But  the  child  is  to  be  built  much  for 
growth  and  needs  much  energy  for  exercise,  as  growth  depends 
upon  exercise  too.  The  child  is,  however,  only  learning  to  eat. 
The  man  has  learned  and  is  grown.  He  needs  great  energy 
and  much  repair  —  energy-food  that  lasts  and  food  that  spares 
as  well  as  repairs  tissue.  Therefore  though  a  child  of  2  years 
and  over  and  a  laborer  both  need  much  food,  yet  they  need 
different  food  (pp.  189-203). 

FOOD-SCIENCE  —  HUMAN  NUTRITION  181 


AGE  AND  WORK 


v=m 


AMOUNTS 


More  food  is  needed  in  cold  weather  than  warm  ;  more  by 
those  of  large  stature  than  small ;  more  by  men  than  women  ; 
more  by  adults  than  children  ;  more  by  adults  in  full  vigor  than 
the  aged  ;  more  by  those  that  do  hard  manual  labor  than  those 
that  do  moderate  manual  work ;  more  by  those  that  do  mod- 
erate manual  work  than  those  that  do  sedentary  or  desk  work. 

AmoMuts  of  food  needed  under  different  co7iditions  cojnpared  with  that 
required  by  a  7nan  at  7noderate  muscular  work. 


Hard  Labor 

Moderate  Work 

Sedentary  Activity 

Man 
Woman 

I 

I 

1 
t'o 

Old  age,  /o  —  Extreme  old  age,  ^-^-% 

15-16  Years 

13-14  Years 

12  Years 

Boys 
Girls 

* 

7 
TO 

tV 

1 

lo-ir  Years 

6-9  Years 

2-5  Years 

Child 

3 
3 

\ 

1 

Infant  under  2  years,  —  -f^ 

(Write  the  above  proportions  as  decimals) 


Food-quantities  in  Daily-Diet,  p.  222 


The  amounts  of  food  needed  by  a  man  at  different  work  de- 
crease by  ^  ;  by  a  boy  at  different  ages  increase  by  J^. 

How  do  these  change  for  women,  girls,  children,  the  aged  ? 

Not  simply  the  total  quantities  of  food  needed  by  adults  and 
children  differ,  but  also  the  amounts  of  the  different  food- 
constituents.    (See  p.  203.) 

For  kinds  and  amounts  of  food  suitable  for  children  at  dif- 
ferent ages,  see  pp.  202-203. 

What  occupations  are  heavy  manual  labor  in  city  and  country  > 
Which  are  moderate  }    Which  light  or  sedentary  t 


182 


FOOD— WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


OF  FOOD 


ffl?i 


FOOD  AND  INCOiyLE 


Compare  amount  of  food  for  a  man  at  sedentary  work,  a  woman 
at  moderate  labor,  boy  13-14,  girl  15-16,  and  extreme 
old  age. 

Under  what  conditions  will,  any  one  else  need  what  a  boy 
15-16  eats  ?  Under  what  conditions  will  a  woman,  boy, 
and  girl  need  what  an  aged  person  eats  ? 

How  much  food  does  a  boy  need  at  1 2  ?  a  girl  at  1 2  ?  a  boy 
at  10?    a  girl  at  10? 

When  do  boys  and  girls  need  the  same  amount ;  when  different  ? 

When  does  a  child  need  i  as  much  food  as  its  mother  ?  as 
its  father  ? 

How  much  more  food  does  a  boy  13-14  need  than  a  child  2-5  ? 


Distribution  of  Incomes  ■ 

$1000 

$2200 

»3600 

Food 

Rent 

Maintenance  of  house 

Clothing 

All  other  expenses 

-5  + 
i- 

A 

i- 

i- 

i 

i- 

f 

(Write  the  above  proportions  as  decimals) 


(For  families  of  5  :  2  adults  ;  3  children) 


How  much  in  dollars  does  each  family  spend  for  food  ?  for 
rent,  etc.  ?  for  food  a  week  ?  Compare  food  expenditure 
with  that  given  on  page  156. 

If  the  man  at  $1000  does  heavy  labor,  and  the  one  at  ;^36oo 
sedentary  work,  how  much  more  food  would  the  former 
need  ?  If  one  mother  does  moderate  work  and  the  other 
light,  what  is  the  difference  in  the  food-need  ? 

Will  a  family  of  girls  or  boys  spend  more  on  food  ? 

If  each  of  the  above  families  had  a  boy  over  14,  a  girl  under 
12,  a  child  of  8,  and  the  father  and  mother  do  moderate 
work,  what  would  each  spend  apiece  for  food  a  week  ? 

Try  this  with  other  families  that  you  select  yourselves. 


FOOD-SCIENCE  —  HUMAN  NUTRITION 


183 


POPULATION  OF  UNITED  STATES  —  1910 


AGE  DISTRIBUTION 


Census,  1910 

Total 

% 

Men — Boys 

Ratio 

Women — Girls 

Total  Population 
Under  5  yr. 
5  to  14  " 
15  "  24  " 
25  "  44  " 
45  "  64  " 
65  and  over 

91,972,266 
10,631,364 
18,867,772 
18,120,587 
26,809,875 
13,424,089 
3.949.524 

100. 
II.6 
20.5 
19.7 
29.1 
14.6 
4.3 

47,332,277 
5.380,596 
9.525.876 
9.107,572 

14,054,482 

7,163,532 
1,985,976 

106.     to  100 
102.5   "    100 
102.      "    100 
lOI.     "   100 

I  10.2    "     100 

1 14.4  "  100 
loi.i   "  100 

44,639,989 
5,250,768 
9,341,896 
9,013,015 

12,755.393 
6,260,757 
1,963,548 

^   Distribution 

BY  Ages  of  Men  —  Boys  and 

Women 

—  Girls 

Under  5 
Yr. 

5  TO  14 
Yr. 

.5T0.4 

25  TO  44 

Yr. 

45  TO  64 
YR. 

65  AND 
OVER 

Men — Boys 
Women — Girls 

II.4 
1 1.8 

20.1 
20.9 

19.2 

20.2 

29.7 
28.6 

I5.I 
14. 

4.2 
4.4 

(Find  similar  percentages  for  different  groups  given  on  opposite  page.) 


NATIVE  WHITE  AND  NATIVE  NEGRO 

MILLIONS 


(From  the  Thirteenth  Census  of  the  United  States,  1910) 

Compare  percentages  in  diagram  for  19 lo  with  number  of 
persons  stated  on  opposite  page. 

Make  a  comparative  chart  of  these  percentages  in  both  dia- 
grams. Use  heavy,  soHd  black  for  19 10  and  crossed 
Hnes  for  1900. 


184 


FOOD— WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


AGE  — RACE  — NATIVE  — FOREIGN        COMPOSITION  OP  POPULATION 


Census,  1910 

Total 

% 

Men — Boys 

Ratio 

Women- 
Girls 

Native  white  {native 

parentage) 

49,488,575 

100 

25,229,218 

104  to  100 

24,259,357 

Under  5  yr. 

6,546,282 

13.2 

3,326,237 

103.3  "  100 

3,220,045 

5  to  14   ^' 

11,185,298 

22.6 

5,669,886 

102.8  "   100 

5,515,412 

15  "   24   " 

9771.977 

20.1 

4,885,442 

100.      "   100 

4,886,535 

25  "  44    " 

12,946,441 

26.1 

6,642,210 

105.4  "   100 

6,304,231 

45  "  64   " 

6,740,000 

13.6 

3,547,325 

III. I  "  100 

3,192,675 

65  and  over 

2,201,068 

44 

1,089,349 

98.      "   100 

1,111,719 

Native  white  {foreign 

or  mixed  parentage) 

18,897,837 

100 

9,425,239 

99.5  to  100 

9,472,598 

Under  5  yr. 

2,674,125 

14.2 

1,350,473 

102.    "  100 

1,323,652 

5  to  14    " 

4.55 1 '444 

24.1 

2,289,629 

I0I.2  ''   100 

2,261,815 

15  "  24   " 

4,078,683 

21.6 

2,008,982 

97.1  "   100 

2,068,701 

25  "  44   " 

5,210,109 

27.6 

2,644,475 

97.      "   100 

2,644,475 

45  "  64   " 

2,117,386 

II. 2 

1,076,222 

103.4  "   100 

1,041,164 

65  and  over 

255,586 

1.4 

128,662 

IOI.4  "  100 

126,924 

Foreign-bom  white 

13,345,545 

100 

7,523,788 

129.2  to  100 

5,821,757 

Under  5  yr. 

102,507 

.8 

51,940 

102.7  "  100 

50,567 

5  to  14    " 

656,839 

4.9 

331,955 

102.2  "  100 

324,884 

15  "  24    " 

2,104,142 

15.8 

1,175,674 

126.6  "  100 

928,468 

25  -  44   " 

5'879'979 

41.9 

3,442,770 

141. 3  "  100 

1,497,783 

65  and  over 

1.183,349 

8.9 

607,008 

105.3  "  100 

576,341 

Negro 

9,827,763 

100 

4,885,881 

98.9  to  100 

4,941,882 

Under  5  yr. 

1,263,288 

12.9 

629,320 

99.3  "  100 

633,968 

5  to  14    " 

2,401,819 

24.4 

1,197,249 

99.4  "  100 

1,204,570 

15  "  24   " 

2,091,211 

21-3 

990,102 

89.9  "   100 

1,101,109 

25  "  44    " 

2,638,178 

26.8 

1,304,098 

97.8  "  100 

1,334,080 

45  "  64   '' 

1,108,103 

II-3 

595,554 

1 16.2  "  100 

512,549 

65  and  over 

294,124 

3. 

152,482 

107.7  "  100 

141,642 

Indian 

265,683 

100 

135,133 

103.5  to  100 

130,550 

Under  5  yr. 

40,384 

15.2 

20,202 

lOO.I  "   100 

20,182 

5  to  14    " 

67,934 

25.6 

34,548 

103.5  "  100 

33,386 

15  "  24    " 

50,330 

18.9 

25,877 

105.8  ''  100 

24,453 

25  "  44    " 

60,175 

22.6 

30,840 

105. 1  "  100 

29,335 

45  "  64   " 

32,925 

12.4 

17,055 

107.5  "  100 

15,870 

65  and  over 

12,986 

4.9 

6,130 

89.4  "  100 

6,856 

Chinese,  Japanese,  and 

all  others 

146,863 

100 

133,018 

960.8  to  100 

13,845 

Under  5  yr. 

4,778 

3-3 

2,424 

103.      "   100 

2,354 

5  to  14    " 

4,438 

3- 

2,609 

142.6  "  100 

1,829 

15  "  24   " 

24,244 

16.5 

21,495 

781.9  "  100 

2,749 

25  "44   " 

74,993 

51. 1 

68,930 

1,136.9  "  100 

6,063 

45  "  64   " 

33,157 

22.6 

32,441 

4,530.9  "   100 

716 

65  and  over 

2,411 

1.6 

2,345 

Women  less    j  qo 
than 

66 

FOOD-SCIENCE  —  HUMAN  NUTRITION 


185 


PRODUCTION  OF  FOOD 

Animal  Foods 


UNITED  STATES  —  1909 

(From  the  Thirteenth  Census  of  the  United  States,  1910) 


Sold 

Value 

Ratio  of  Sales 
TO  Production 

Price  in 
1909 

Milk  (gallons) 
Cream    " 
Butter  fat  (pounds) 
Butter 
Cheese 

1.937.255.864 

54.933.583 

305,662,587 

415,080,489 

8,136,901 

$252,436,757 

37.655.047 

82,311,511 

100,378,123 

987.974 

(1909) 

% 
41.7 
86.5 

(1899) 

•% 
48.3 
89.7 

13^  per  gal. 
68.5^"    " 

25^  per  lb. 

14;^     "    " 

Produced 

Sold 

Value 

%  Increase  1899-1909 
(quantity)         (cost) 

Eggs  (doz.) 
All  fowls 

1,591,311,371 
488,468,354 

926,465,787 
153,600,169 

$180,768,249 

75.273.524 

23% 

112.6 

48. 

All  Domestic  Animals,  in  1909,  $5,296,421,619  (Total  Value) 


Number 

Value 

Av.  Per  Head 

On  Farms 

Not  ON  Farms 

Cattle 
Sheep 
Goats 
Swine 

63,682,648 

52,838,748 

3.029.795 
59,473,636 

^1.560,339.868 

234,664,528 

6,542,172 

409,414,568 

$24.50 
4.44 
2.16 
6.88 

$24.26 
4.44 
2.12 

6.86 

$32.37 
4.66 

3-19 

7.82 

States  Leading  in  Number  of  Animals  on  Farms,  1910 


All  Cattle 

Dairy  Cows 

SwiNE 

Sheep  and  Goats 

1 

Texas 

New  York 

Iowa 

Wyoming 

2 

Iowa 

Wisconsin 

Illinois 

Montana 

3 

Kansas 

Iowa 

Missouri 

Ohio 

4 

Nebraska 

Minnesota 

Indiana 

New  Mexico 

5 

Wisconsin 

Illinois 

Nebraska 

Idaho 

6 

Missouri 

Texas 

Ohio 

Texas 

7 

Illinois 

Pennsylvania 

Kansas 

Oregon 

8 

New  York 

Ohio 

Texas 

California 

9 

Minnesota 

Missouri 

Oklahoma 

Michigan 

10 

California 

Michigan 

Wisconsin 

Missouri 

Are  these  the  states  indicated  on  the  maps  on  pp.  122-125  ? 

Which  state  ranks  highest  in  several  products  ?    What  are  the  products  ? 

What  articles  besides  food  will  be  produced  in  the  states  raising  animals  ? 


186 


FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


AND  VALUE  IN  UNITED  STATES  —  1909 


PRODUCTION  OF  FOOD 


(From  the  Thirteenth  Census  of  the  United  States,  1910) 


Vegetable  Foods 


Produced 

Value 

%  Increase 
I 899- 1909 

Price  in 

1909 

Cereals 

Amount 

Value 

Corn           (bu.) 

2,552,189,630 

^1438,553,919 

73-7 

81.5 

56)^       pel 

bu. 

Wheat 

683,379»259 

657,656,801 

77.8 

7^-2> 

96^        " 

Buckwheat  " 

14,849,332 

9,330.592 

62.3 

22.8 

62  +  ;^    " 

Barley           " 

173,344,212 

92,458,571 

122. 1 

53-3 

53^       " 

Rye 

29,520,457 

20,421,812 

66.2 

43-9 

69^      " 

Rice  (rough)   " 

21,838,580 

16,019,607 

1 53- 1 

4.3 

73^       " 

Vegetables 

Potatoes       " 

389,194,965 

166,423,910 

(39.2 

18.8 

43-^   " 

Sweet        " 

59,232,070 

35,429,176 

78.3 

28. 

60-^   " 

Beans 

11,251,160 

21,771,482 

185.2 

1-93 

28^       " 

Peas 

7,129,294 

10,963,739 

38.6 

1-53 

83  +  ^   " 

All  other      " 
Sugar  (tons) 

216,257,068 
61,648,942 

79.8 
89.1 

11,820,379 

-57 

$5.61  per  ton 

Berries  (qt.) 

426,565,863 

29,974,481 

19.8 

30. 

7^   " 

qt. 

Fruits 

Orchard        (bu.) 

216,083,695 

140,867,347 

68.2 

65.3 

65^   " 

bu. 

Tropical, etc.  " 

8,227,838 

200.3 



Nuts       (lb.) 

62,328,010 

1,949,931 

128.1 

46.5 

7^   " 

qt. 

Peanuts    " 

I9,4i5'8i6 

18,271,929 

151-3 

-9 

SS-f'  " 

bu. 

Cottonseed  (tons) 

5,324,634 

121,076,984 

157-9 

34.2 

$22.73   " 

ton 

Total  crops  increased  from  i8gg  to  i^og  in  value  66.6%. 

Note  which  crops  have  increased.  Where  are  they  grown  ? 
(See  maps,  pp.  18-19.) 

Note  prices  of  large-quantity  sales.  Compare  these  prices 
with  current  local  retail  prices. 

Estimate  for  winter  wheat  crop  in  the  United  States  for 
19 14  is  551,000,000  bushels  or  11.5%  more  than  aver- 
age for  10  years  past.  During  this  period  36,506,000 
acres  under  wheat  cultivation  were  abandoned. 

All  information  necessary  for  a  complete,  exact  computation 
of  food  consumed  in  the  United  States  is  not  available. 

For  importations  of  food,  see  p.  158. 

French  consumption  of  food  has  been  calculated.   (See  p.  1 59.) 


FOOD-SCIENCE—  HUMAN  NUTRITION 


187 


FOOD-COMPOSITION 


Hm 


FUEL  VALUE 


Foods  are  composed  of  a  great  many  chemical  elements,  as 
nitrogen,  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  sidphur,  phosphorus,  cal- 
cinm,  sodium,  potassium.  These  so  unite  as  to  form  the  very 
complex  food-constituents,  protein,  carbohydrates,  fats,  and 
the  simpler  mineral  salts  and  water. 

As  it  is  through  the  oxidation  of  food  that  it  comes  into 
use  in  the  body,  the  fuel  value  —  that  is,  the  amount  of  heat 
produced  as  the  food  is  oxidized  —  has  been  determined  for 
all  common  foods.  The  amount  of  heat  that  foods  yield  as 
they  unite  with  oxygen  is  measured  in  heat  units  called  calo- 
ries. A  calorie  is  the  quantity  of  heat  which  will  raise  i  pint  of 
water  4°  F  (or  i  liter  i"^  C).    Calculation  of  fuel  value,  p.  223. 

Adults  need  from  their  food  2000  -  to  3000  +  calories  a 
day  according  to  their  age,  sex,  size,  work  (see  p.  223).  A  man 
at  very  hard  work  needs  food  that  will  yield  heat  enough  daily 
to  raise  i  bbl.  of  water  from  freezing  to  boiling,  or  heat  enough 
in  a  week  to  convert  i  bbl.  (63  gal.)  from  ice  to  steam. 


Fuel  Value 


Common  Foods 


Daily 

Amount 


Average 
IN  Pounds 


One.Pound 


Food 


Relative  Heat  Value 


6-14  OZ 

2-5 

2-5 

1-4 

8-16 

8-32 

4-12 

8-16 


I  loaf 
40  balls 

2C 

I  pint 
8-10 

3-4 
3-4 

2-3 

2-3 


Bread 

Butter 

Sugar 

Oatmeal 

Milk 

Eggs 

Meat 

Potatoes 

Tomatoes 

Apples 

Bananas 

Peanuts 


3410 

1750 

1800 
310 
635 

1045 

295 

95 

190 

260 

1775 


An  inactive  person  weighing  150  pounds  needs  daily  1800  4-  calories  to 
repair  tissues,  supply  energy^  maintain  body  temperature. 


188 


FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


VARIETY  —  SIMILARITY 


Hnm 


DIET-COMPOSITION 


Foods,  the  edible  parts  of  plants  and  animals,  are  composed 
of  what  these  are.  It  is  this  that  makes  food  capable  of  carry- 
ing into  the  body  substances  that  sustain  its  life  and  activity. 
These  substances  {protein,  fat,  carbohydrates,  mineral  salts, 
water)  are  present  in  different  quantities.  This  makes  some 
foods  able  to  take  the  place  of  others  and  some  to  add  in 
combination  what  others  lack. 


Food  Charts 


Supplementary  Foods 


nz      .  r     1     r  Refuse CnHZED   Mineral  saltsHHH   CarbohydratesI— H  "1      .    .       j  r     7 
Plant  foods    \yj^^er  t=D   Protein  ^m  Fat  (MIIIIdJ    Animal  foods 

{%  in  I  pound)  0       lo        20       30       40       50       no        70       so        90        100  (%  in  i  pound) 


Potatoes 
Tomatoes 


IE 


iBeef 


Mutton 


Chicken 


Butter 


Milk 


Oysters 


Cheese 


Eggs 


This  comparison  is  of  i  lb.  of  each  food,  but  foods,  it  should  be  remem- 
bered, are  eaten  in  different  quantities.  This  is  somewhat  controlled  by 
their  bulk  when  prepared.  Potatoes  ii-2  lb.  is  approximately  the  equiv- 
alent of  i-f  lb.  rice  as  vegetable  served  with  meat.  Note  their  nutrients. 
Beef  i-ii-  lb.  serves  three.  Butter  for  three  for  a  day  weighs  f  lb. 
Bzet  C/iart,  p.  222  Calculation  of  Dietary^  p.  223 


FOOD-SCIENCE— HUMAN  NUTRITION 


189 


FOOD-COMPOSITION  TABLES 


ANIMAL  FOODS  (AS  PURCHASED) 


R 

«^ 

Animal  Foods 

P 

F 

CH 

MM 

Calories 

% 

% 

Beef,  fresh 

% 

% 

% 

% 

P^r  pound 

13 

52 

Porterhouse 

19 

18 

.8 

1 100 

64 

Rib  rolls 

19 

17 

•9 

1055 

7 

61 

Round 

19 

13 

I. 

890 

10 

54 

Flank 

17 

19 

.7 

1 105 

13 

54 

Sirloin  steak 

17 

16 

•9 

975 

16 

57 

Shoulder  clod 

16 

10 

•9 

715 

13 

53 

Loin 

16 

18 

•9 

1025 

16 

53 

Chuck  ribs 

16 

15 

.8 

910 
1165 

28 

46 

'       Neck 

15 

12 

•7 

21 

44 

Ribs 

14 

21 

•7 

1135 

21 

45 

Rump 

14 

20 

•7 

1090 

37 

43 

Shank  (fore) 

13 

7 

.6 

545 

19 

49 

Fore  quarter 

15- 

18 

•7 

995 

16 

50 

Hind  quarter 
Canned,  dried,  etc. 

15  + 

19 

•7 

1045 

5 

54 

Dried  (salted) 

26  + 

7 

9- 

790 

52 

Canned  (corned) 

26  + 

19 

4- 

1270 

52 

(boiled) 

26- 

23 

I.+ 

1470 

8 

49 

Corned 

14  + 

24 

5-- 

1245 

6 

59 

Tongue  (pickled) 
Veal 

12- 

19 

4- 

lOIO 

3 

68 

Leg  cutlets 

20 

8 

I. 

69s 

14 

60 

Leg 

16- 

8 

•9 

625 

21 

52 

Breast 
Mutton 

15  + 

II 

.8 

745 

18 

51 

Leg  (hind) 

15 

15- 

.8 

890 

16 

42 

Loin  chops 

14- 

28 

•7 

1415 

10 

39 

Flank 
Lamb 

14- 

?>7 

.6 

1770 

17 

53 

Leg  (hind) 

16 

14 

•9 

860 

19 

46 

Breast 
Poultry 

15 

19 

.8 

1075 

23 

42 

Turkey 

16 

18 

.8 

1060 

18 

39 

Goose 

13 

30 

•7 

1475 

26 

47 

Fowls 

14- 

12 

.7 

765 

42 

44 

Broilers 

13- 

1  + 

•7 

305 

II 

66 

Eggs 

13 

9  + 

•9 

635 

7?,  refuse;   IV,  water;  P,  protein;  F,  fat;  CH,  carbohydrates;  MM,  mineral  salts.    (Over 
.5  is  considered  i ;  under  .5  is  dropped  except  for  mineral  salts ;  +  means  more ;  — ,  less) 

What  constituent  gives  animal  foods  high  fuel  value?    For  what  are 
those  of  low  heat  value  eaten? 


190 


FOOD—  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


FOOD-COMPOSITION  TABLES 


ANIMAL  FOODS  (AS  PURCHASED) 


Calories 

MM 

CH 

^ 

P 

Animal  Foods 

IV 

R 

Per  pound 

% 

% 

% 

% 

Por/t,  /resA 

% 

% 

895 

I. 

13 

19 

Tenderloin 

67 

1320 

.8 

26 

14- 

Ham 

48 

II 

1245 

.8 

24 

13  + 

Loin  chops 

42 

20 

1450 

•7 

30 

12 

Shoulder 
Salted,  smoked 

50 

12 

1635 

4- 

33 

14 

Ham  (smoked) 

35 

14 

1335 

6. 

27 

13 

Shoulder  (smoked) 

37 

18 

2715 

4- 

62 

9 

Bacon  (smoked) 

17 

8 

3555 

4-- 

86 

2- 

Salt  pork 
Sausage 

8 

1155 

3-+ 

I 

19 

20 

Frankfort 

57 

1155 

4. 

20 

18 

Bologna 

55 

3 

2075 

2. 

I 

44 

13 

Pork 
Soups 

40 

365 

I. 

6 

4 

5 

Meat  stew 

85 

120 

I. 

I 

4 

Beef 
Fish 

93 

475 

•9 

4 

15 

Halibut 

62 

18 

275 

•9 

I  - 

13 

Perch  (dressed) 

51 

35 

220 

.8 

II 

Cod  (dressed) 

59 

30 

325 

19. 

16 

Cod  (salt) 

40 

30 

370 

•7 

4 

10 

Mackerel 

40 

45 

380 

•7 

5 

9 

Shad  (whole) 

35 

50 

600 

2. 

3- 

4 

21 

Shad  (roe) 

71 

755 

7- 

9 

21 

Herrings  (smoked) 

19 

44 

915 

3- 

12 

22 

Salmon  (canned) 

64 

950 

5- 

12 

24 

Sardines  (canned) 

54 

5 

340 

2.+ 

5 

I 

II  - 

Clams 

81 

200 

2.- 

I  - 

I  - 

8 

Crabs 

37 

52 

145 

.8 

I  - 

6 

Lobsters 

31 

62 

225 

I. 

3 

' 

6 

Oyster  solids 
Dairy  Products 

88 

3410 

3- 

85 

I 

Butter 

ir 

865 

•5 

5- 

19 

3- 

Cream 

74 

310 

•7 

5 

4 

3 

Milk  (whole) 

87 

165 

•7 

5 

3  + 

Skim  milk 

91 

160 

•7 

5- 

I- 

3 

Butter  milk 

91 

1430 

2. 

54 

8 

9- 

Condensed  milk 

30 

2075 

4- 

4 

37 

28 

Cheddar  cheese 

27 

1885 

4-- 

2  + 

34 

26 

Cream  cheese 

34 

(Rearranged  from  Farmer^ s  Bulletin,  No.  142,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture) 

Which  animal  foods  contain  carbohydrates?    In  dairy  products  and  fish 
they  are  forms  of  sugar. 


FOOD-SCIENCE  "HUMAN  NUTRITION 


191 


FOOD-COMPOSITION  TABLES       VEGETABLE  FOODS  (AS  PURCHASED) 


R 

IV 

Vegetable  Foods 

P 

F 

CH 

ATi^ 

Calories 

% 

% 

Cereals 

% 

% 

% 

% 

Per  Pound 

10 

Wheat 

12 

2  — 

75 

1-3 

1680 

14 

Buckwheat 

6 

I- 

78 

•9 

1605 

13 

Rye 

7 

I  - 

79 

•7 

1620 

13- 

Cornmeal 

9 

2- 

75 

I. 

1635 

8 

Oatmeal 

17 

7 

66 

2. 

1800 

12 

Rice 

8 

79 

.4 

1620 

II 

Tapioca 
Starch 
Flours 

88 
90 

.1 

1650 
1675 

II 

Entire  wheat 

14 

2- 

72 

I. 

1650 

II 

Graham 

13 

2  + 

71 

1.8 

1645 

12 

White  (high) 

II 

I 

75 

•5 

1635 

12 

White  (low) 

14 

2 

71 

•9 

1640 

10 

Macaroni 
Bread,  etc. 

13 

I  - 

74 

1-3 

1645 

35 

White 

9 

I 

53 

I.I 

1200 

44 

Brown 

5 

2- 

47 

2.1 

1040 

36 

Graham 

9 

2- 

52 

1-5 

"95 

38 

Whole  wheat 

10- 

I 

50 

1-3 

1 130 

36 

Rye 

9 

I  - 

53 

1-5 

1 170 

20 

Cake 
Crackers 

6 

9 

63 

1-5 

1630 

7 

Cream 

ID 

12 

70 

1-7 

1925 

5 

Oyster 

II 

II 

71 

2.9 

1910 

6 

Soda 
Sugar,  etc. 

Molasses 

Candy 

Honey 

Maple  sirup 
Starchy  vegetables 

10 

9 

73 
100 
70 
96 
81 
71 

2.1 

1875 
1750 
1225 
1680 
1420 
1250 

13 

Beans  (dried) 

23 

2- 

60 

3-5 

1520 

70 

Beans  (baked) 

7 

3 

20 

2.1 

555 

69 

Beans  (shelled) 

7 

I  - 

22 

1-7 

540 

7 

83 

Beans  (string) 

2 

7 

•7 

170 

10 

Peas  (dried) 

25 

I 

62 

3- 

1565 

75 

Peas  (shelled) 

7 

I  - 

17 

I. 

440 

85 

Peas  (green) 

4 

10 

I.I 

235 

76 

Corn  (green) 

3 

I- 

20 

•7 

440 

76 

Succotash 

4 

I 

19 

•9 

425 

20 

63 

Potatoes 

2- 

15 

.8 

295 

20 

55 

Potatoes  (sweet) 

1  + 

I- 

22 

•9 

440 

20 

66 

Parsnips 

1  + 

II 

I.I 

230 

10 

79 

Onions 

I  + 

9 

•5 

190 

192 


FOOD—  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


FOOD-COMPOSITION  TABLES       VEGETABLE  FOODS  (AS  PURCHASED) 


Calories 

MM 

C^ 

/^ 

P 

Vegetable  Foods 

IV 

R 

Perpoufid 

% 

% 

% 

% 

Nuts 

% 

% 

1775 

1-5 

19 

29 

20- 

Peanuts 

7 

25 

1515 

I.I 

10- 

30 

12- 

Almonds 

3 

45 

1485 

2. 

3-5 

34 

9- 

Brazil 

3- 

50 

1430 

I.I 

6 

31 

8- 

Filberts 

2 

52 

730 

.5 

3 

15- 

7 

Walnuts  (black) 

I 

74 

1250 

.6 

7- 

27 

7 

Walnuts  (English) 

I 

58 

1145 

.8 

4 

26 

6 

Hickory- 

I 

62 

1465 

.7 

6 

33 

5 

Pecans 

I 

53 

1295 

•9 

14 

30 

3 

Coconuts 

7 

49 

2865 

1-3 

32 

57 

6 

Coconut  (prepared) 

4 

385 

4 

I- 

8 

4 

Butternuts 

I 

86 

9^5 

I.I 

35 

5- 

5 

Chestnuts 
Driedfruits 

38 

16 

1280 

2.4 

74 

4 

Figs 

19 

1275 

1.2 

71 

3- 

2 

Dates 

14 

10 

1265 

3- 

69 

3 

2 

Raisins 

13 

10 

1 185 

2. 

66 

2 

2 

Apples 

28 

1125 

2.4 

63 

I 

5- 

Apricots 
Fresh  fruits 

29 

295 

4 

14 

I 

I 

Grapes 

58 

25 

260 

.6 

14 

Bananas 

49 

35 

395 

1-5 

13 

Plums 

78 

230 

4 

13 

I  - 

Pears 

76 

10 

220 

.6 

13- 

I 

Raspberries 

86 

190 

II 

Apples 

63 

25 

150 

4 

9- 

I  - 

Oranges 

63 

27 

150 

.6 

7 

I- 

I 

Strawberries 

86 

5 

125 

4 

6 

I  - 

I  - 

Lemons 

63 

30 

80 

5 

Muskmelons 

45 

50 

50 

.1 

3- 

Watermelons 
Green  Vegetables 

38 

59 

.       185 

1.2 

7- 

3-5 

Mushrooms 

88 

160 

•9 

8- 

1  + 

Beets 

70 

20 

155 

I.I 

7.5 

Carrots 

70 

20 

120 

.6 

6- 

Turnips 

63 

30 

100 

4 

5- 

I  - 

Squash 

44 

50 

"5 

•9 

5 

1  + 

Cabbage 

78 

15 

100 

•5 

4 

I  - 

Tomatoes 

94 

95 

.6 

4 

Tomatoes  (canned) 

94 

95 

2.1 

3 

Spinach 

92 

65 

*'!8 

3- 

Celery 

76 

20 

65 

4 

3- 

I- 

Cucumbers 

81 

15 

65 

.8 

3- 

Lettuce 

81 

15 

60 

4 

2 

Rhubarb 

57 

40 

FOOD-SCIENCE—  HUMAN  NUTRITION 


193 


MENUS  —  TYPES 


HR 


ADJUSTMENTS 


Memis  are  the  arranged  meal-distribution  of  food.  They 
are  composed  of  groups  of  different  foods.  Menus  should 
combine  food  palatably  and  so  distribute  it  that  it  can  be 
digested.  Menus"  vary  widely  in  type  because  adjusted  to  cli- 
mate, season,  food-supply  and  economic  circumstances.  But 
the  general  suggestions  offered  below  are  basal  to  all  menus 
scientifically  selected  to  meet  food-needs. 

Dinner  is  both  the  most  substantial  and  elaborate  meal. 
What  the  dinner  is  determines  what  the  other  meals  should  be. 

Daily  Menus  Basic  Suggestions 

Breakfast  (For  Adults)         (For  School  Children)  (For  Little  Children) 

Light  —  Fruit,  buttered  Milk,  cereal,  eggs,  toast,  Cereal   porridge  ;    milk 

toast,  coffee  fruit  (/z/;v),  slightly  cooked 

Moderate  —  Cereal,  cof-  [Currently  varied  in  kinds  of  ^^esh  eggs,  oven  toast 

fee,  eggs,  bread,  fruit  foods  used  and  methods  of  or  dry  bread,  fresh  or 

iY^^z/^ (for  hard  labor)—  their  preparation]  freshly    cooked    ripe 

Cereal,  coffee,  meat,  fruit  (without  skins  or 

vegetable,  bread,  fruit  seeds) 

Lmtcheon 

Su7nmer —  Thin    soup,  No  tea,  no  coffee,  little  No  tea,  no  coffee,  no  fish, 

green  vegetables,  fruit  uncooked  or  acid  fruit,  no  pastry,  no  canned 

salad,  tea,  hot  bread  or  no    highly    seasoned  food,     no     extractive 

plain  cake,  fresh  fruit  food,  no  rich  desserts  soups,  no  hot  breads 

Winter — Thick  soup.  Milk  soups,  cocoa,  meat  Baked  custard,  plain  cold 
starchy  vegetables,  and  eggs  alternating,  cake,  jams  only  home- 
egg-foods  or  sea-foods  oil  dressings,  vegeta-  made.    (Otherwise  as 

(Outdoor    life)     Cocoa,  bles,  bread,  butter  for  older  children) 

pancakes  or  tarts,  fruit  ^///jj^r  —  Modification  ^////^r— Like  breakfast 

of  luncheon  above 

Dinner  —  (Manual  laborers  need  dinner  at  noon  and  more  food  at  all  meals) 

Summer —  Fresh  fruit  or  thin  soup  ;  poultry,  roast,  or  steak  ;  fresh  green, 
and  starchy  vegetables ;  light  salad  or  frozen  dessert ;  cream  cheese 
and  crackers  ;  coffee.    Cold  bread  with  dinner. 

Wiitter — Thick  soup;  bread;  meat;  starchy,  green  vegetables ;  substantial 
salad  and  light  dessert  or  light  salad  and  substantial  dessert ;  coffee. 

194  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


A  DINNER-TABLE 


A  LUNCHEON-TABLE 


A  BREAKFAST-TABLE*  .  > 


CONSTRUCTION 


F?I?I 


DIETARIES 


Dietaries  are  the  food-combinations  selected  to  meet  food- 
needs,  as  those  of  an  individual- or  a  family  group.  The  foods 
composing  a  dietary  are  distributed  into  menus  as  meals. 

Distribution  of  food  through  the  day,  week,  month,  year,  as 
well  as  the  kinds,  combination,  and  quantity  needed  in  differ- 
ent periods  of  life,  at  different  work,  and  in  varying  health  are 
all  questions  to  be  answered  practically  in  forming  dietaries. 

Planned  dietaries  consider  science-knowledge  of  food  and 
body  food-needs,  but  neither  is  fixed.  Knowledge  grows  and 
needs  change  with  altered  conditions. 

Quantities  of  food  consumed  should  vary  mainly  with 
amount  of  work  done,  physical  growth  occurring  and  season, 
rather  than  be  controlled  by  expense  incurred,  as  is  usual 
with  those  laboring  hardest  and  longest. 

Selection  of  Food-Co7nbinations  for  Different  Meals. 

(At  what  meals  and  for  which  age  should  the  following  foods  be  served .?) 
Milk,  pea  soup,  tomato  bouillon,  clam  broth,  oyster  stew,  bean  puree. 
Milk,  tea,  coffee,  cocoa ;  oven  toast,  toast,  dry  bread,  hot  breads. 
Beef,  lamb,  poultry,  eggs ;  green  vegetables,  starchy ;  macaroni,  rice. 
Salads,  light,  substantial ;  sauces  with  oil,  with  vinegar. 
Cake  plain,  cold,  warm,  rich ;  baked  rice  pudding,  custard ;  pastry. 
Gingerbread  or  sponge  cake  is  palatable  with  apple  sauce,  blueberries, 

mountain  cranberries.    Name  similar  combinations. 
Ice-cream  and  cake  make  a  heavy  dessert ;  fruit  ices  and  lady-fingers  a 

light ;  fruit  gelatine  or  fruit  souffle  or  stewed  fruit,  a  medium. 
Use  one  of  each  of  the  desserts  suggested  and  make  with  it  a  menu  for 

a  light  dinner,  for  a  moderate,  for  a  heavy. 
Make  a  menu  for  a  light,  moderate,  heavy  breakfast  and  luncheon  with 

each  of  these  dinner-menus. 
Decide  which  you  would  like.    Try  to  have  such  a  meal.    Is  it  palatable? 

Write  on  the  basis  suggested^  different  menus  of  many  types^  choosing 
variety  of  foods  from  Tables  on  pp.  igo-igj. 

FOOD  SCIENCE  —  HUMAN  NUTRITION  195 


DIGESTIBILITY 


HTR 


IN  GENERAL 


The  digestibility  of  a  food  depends  upon  the  degree  to 
which  its  nutrients  (nourishing  constituents)  can  be  secured 
from  it  by  the  body  when  in  health.  Digestibility  of  foods 
determines  therefore  the  nourishment  they  yield.  Science 
finds  that  all  food-constituents,  even  in  the  §ame  food,  are 
not  equally  digestible.  In  food  in  general  91%  protein  is 
digested,  95%  fat,  98%  carbohydrate. 

Digestibility  of  Nutrients  of  Different  Groups  of  Foods 


In  Mixed  Diet 

% 

In  Foods  Eaten  Separately 

T 

V 

A 

Meat 

Eggs 

Milk 

Cereals 

Legumes 

yege  tables 

Fruits 

Sugars 

Starches 

92 

84 

97 

Protein 

97 

97 

97 

85 

78 

83 

85 

95 

90 

95 

Fat 

95 

95 

95 

90 

90 

90 

90 

97 

97 

98 

CH 

98 

98 

97 

95 

90 

98 

98 

T,  total ;  F, vegetable ;  A ,  animal  food.  Meat  includes  fish ;  milk  includes  butter.  (After  Atwater) 

Comparison  of  Digestibility  of  Nutrients  of  Specific  Foods 


% 

Bread  White 

Whole  Wheat 

Potatoes 

Beans 

Peas 

Bananas 

Protein 

Fats 

CH 

88 
90 
98 

83 

95 

75 
99 

80 
98 
97 

83 

95 

85 
90 
90 

(After  Olsen) 

Note  different  breads.  Remember  refuse  and  water  are  not  included  in 
nutrients  of  foods.  The  percentages  given  above  are  the  usable 
proportion  of  the  solid  nourishing  parts  of  foods. 

Time  of  Digestion  of  Animal  Foods  (After  Thompson) 


Eggs  (raw)  ij  hr. 
Eggs  (cooked)  3^-5  hr. 
Mutton  (raw)  2  hr. 
Pork  (cooked)  3  hr. 

Beef  (raw  or  finely  chopped)  2  hr. 
Beef  (rare)  2J  hr. ;  (well-done)  3  hr. 
Beef  (thoroughly  roasted)  4  hr. 
Veal  (cooked)  2J  hr. 

Some  foods  digest  quickly  and  easily.  Meats  do.  A  food  may  digest 
relatively  fully  yet  require  much  time  and  energy  in  digesting  it. 
Cheese  and  beans  do. 

Order  of  Digestibility  of  Animal  Foods  (Page  218) 


196 


FOOD^  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


AIDS 


filH 


DIGESTIBILITY 


Food  Characteristics  that  affect  digestibility  of  food  are  in  ge7ieral  : 

Structure  of  food  (how  food-constituents  are  held  in  food). 

Texture  (fineness  and  compactness ;  coarseness  and  looseness).  Fine- 
grained food  understimulates  the  digestive  tract.  Coarse  may  render 
it  overactive,  resulting  in  elimination  of  food  undigested. 

Properties  of  food,  as  salts  in  milk  and  eggs,  aid  in  keeping  blood  in 
condition  for  effective  assimilation  of  food.  Enzymes  in  food  also 
aid  digestion.  Pineapple  contains  such  an  enzyme.  It  furthers  the 
digestion  of  other  foods.  (Place  a  piece  of  meat  between  2  slices 
of  pineapple.  Leave  over-night.  Examine  next  day.)  Laxative 
foods  contain  substances  that  increase  peristalsis. 

Palat ABILITY.    Unappetizing  food  may  decrease  digestive  juices. 

Digestibility  of  food  may  be  furthered  by  : 

Preparation  in  cooking,  that  breaks  up  food,  making  it  ready  for  diges- 
tion, and  destroys  bacteria  that  might  disturb  digestion  or  cause  disease. 

Mastication  of  food  breaks  it  up  and  so  exposes  it  to  the  digestive  juices. 

Combining  foods  so  that  digestive  tract  is  used  as  a  whole,  as  in  mixed 
diet.  Also  supplementing  foods  deficient  in  any  food-constituent 
with  others  containing  this,  as  rice  (often  lacking  i?t  salts)  with 
egg-yolk^  barley  foods  ^  and  lentils  that  add  such  salts  as  those  lost. 

Quantity  adjusted  to  need.  Too  little  or  too  concentrated  food  in 
lacking  bulk  may  cause  constipation.  Too  much  or  excess  of  bulky 
food  stretches  and  weakens  the  stomach,  clogs  the  body  with  waste 
products,  and  causes  food-fermentation.  With  a  moderate  amount  of 
food  y^5  to  i\  more  food  is  digested  and  is  also  more  easily  digested. 

Time  and  energy  are  both  required  to  digest  food.  Different  amounts 
of  both  are  needed  for  different  foods.  Too  rapid  and  too  frequent 
eating  as  well  as  too  much  food  weaken  digestion.  Adults  usually 
need  food  3  times  daily  at  intervals  of  4  to  5  hours. 

Food  as  eaten  excites  the  flow  of  digestive  juices,  especially  acid,  liquid, 
or  sweet  foods.    Soups  act  thus  at  the  beginning  of  a  meal. 

Water,  a  glassful  at  the  beginning  of  a  substantial  meal,  increases  flow  of 
digestion  juices  and  renders  them  more  destructive  to  bacteria.  (Hall) 

AciDS^  fruits,  or  acid  fluid  food,  as  lemonade,  in  moderate  quantity  near 
the  end  of  a  meal,  stimulate  flow  of  gastric  juice  and  increase  the 
acid  in  it,  so  further  digestion  of  food.  (Hall) 

FOOD  SCIENCE —  HUMAN  NUTRITION  197 


FOOD  SEASONING 


RnH 


PROMOTING 


Natural  flavor  of  food  is  nature's  indication  of  the  food 
needed  and  even  of  the  amount  needed.  Seasoning,  the 
French  say,  would  better  be  reduced  to  salting  only  than  be 
a  mixture  of  seasonings  that  conceal  natural  food-flavors. 

Condiments  that  develop  natural  food-flavor^  are  advisable. 
Some  spices  develop  the  flavors  of  each  other  and  can  be  used 
together  ;  some  foods  do  this,  as  cabbage  and  squash  together. 

Seasoning  should  be  incorporated  in  food  as  it  is  prepared, 
except  where  this  will  change  unfavorably  the  constitution  of 
foods.  Salting  string  beans  at  the  beginning  of  cooking  tough- 
ens them.  Salting  meat  before  it  is  seared  draws  out  the 
juices.  Vanilla  added  to  a  hot  mixture  evaporates,  because  it 
itself  vaporizes  at  relatively  low  temperature. 

Excessive  seasoning  may  be  destructive  of  food  itself  as 
well  as  of  its  flavor.  By  hardening  fiber,  food  is  rendered  less 
digestible,  so  less  nutritious.  By  artificial  heightening  of  fla- 
vor overstimulation  of  the  digestive  tract  increases  appetite 
for  artificial  food  and  more  food  than  is  needed.  Excess  of 
seasonings  also  introduces  substances  into  the  digestive  tract 
that  it  cannot  take  care  of  in  quantity.  These  may  harden  the 
tissues  of  its  walls  or  cause  overactive  peristalsis. 

As  a  child  usually  wishes  to  see  sugar  on  a  sweetened  food, 
many  adults  desire  to  salt  food.  Though  both  salt  and  sugar 
are  very  necessary  in  a  diet,  in  great  excess  they  are  harmful 
and  may  disorder  digestion.  It  is  important  to  cultivate  a  taste 
for  well-seasoned  food  by  eating  it  rather  than  becoming  accus- 
tomed to  flavorless  food  or  excessive  seasoning. 

Dressings  on  food,  as  cream  and  salad  dressings,  containing 
egg  and  oil  or  milk  and  flour  increase  nourishment  as  well  as 
palatability  by  uniting  the  food-ingredients  and  seasoning  or 
flavoring  the  foods.    Tart  food-dressings  stimulate  peristalsis. 

198  FOOD—  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


Hi 

^p^ 

^^^^^^^^^^Hb^^KI^M^V'^ 

-..^^..,..^J\  f^^^^H 

^1 

^^^^^^^^^^^^■^^H        iai 

i^H^R^H 

DIGESTION 


Fm 


PALATABILITY 


Palatability  of  food,  that  is,  its  agreeable  effect,  plays  an 
important  part  in  nutrition.  But  all  food  that  is  palatable  is 
not  necessarily  wholesome.  Such  food-selection,  preparation, 
service,  are  needed  as  will  insure  the  fullest  use  of  food  in  the 
body.  Different  persons  like  different  foods.  So  long  as  va- 
riety is  secured  and  convenience  permits,  such  difference  in 
taste  should  be  respected,  as  this  makes  food  more  appetizing. 

A  meal  as  a  whole,  as  well  as  separate  foods,  needs  to  be  palatable. 
All  foods  are  not  equally  agreeable  together  or  even  one  after  another 
during  the  same  day.  The  diet  as  a  whole,  too,  needs  to  be  palatable. 
Overchanging  diet  overtaxes  the  body  to  adjust  to  unaccustomed  foods. 
Monotony  in  diet  has  been  thought  to  deaden  appetite  for  even  naturally 
preferred  foods.  Science  finds,  however,  that  the  same  diet  if  adjusted  to 
the  person's  needs  does  not  prove  unpalatable.  But  as  it  is  difficult  so 
to  adjust  diet  that  a  few  kinds  of  food  essentially  contain  exactly  the  con- 
stituents needed,  variety  is  more  apt  to  achieve  this.  It  also  enables  one 
to  change  to  different  foods  as  environment  or  illness  may  require. 

As  seasoning  may  improve  food-flavors,  so  the  incidental  accompani- 
ments of  a  meal  may  enhance  its  palatability.  Many  of  the  foods  too 
commonly  eaten  between  meals  can  bring  flavor  into  meals  and  should 
be  so  used.  Such  are  candies,  fruits,  nuts.  But  many  of  these  are  them- 
selves substantial  foods,  so  must  be  used  in  small  quantities  or  be  served 
as  a  significant  part  of  the  meal  with  which  they  are  eaten.  Olives,  for 
instance,  when  ripe,  are  a  nutritious  food ;  nuts  are,  too. 

Refreshing  rather  than  stimulating  food  is  the  need  of  the 
body.  Green  salads  are  refreshing  and  increase  the  palata- 
bility of  diets  that  include  them.  Palatable  food  stimulates 
digestion  by  exciting  an  adequate  flow  of  digestive  juices. 

Foods  all  have  their  seasons  of  finest  flavor.  All  are  altered 
by  their  preparation.  Poor  cooking  makes  all  food  poor.  All 
food-effects  are  somewhat  influenced  by  food-service  and  social 
surroundings.  Superior  quality  of  food,  pleasant  flavor,  pleas- 
ing appearance  as  served,  make  food  palatable. 

FOOD-SCIENCE^  HUMAN  NUTRITION  199 


LIFE-FOOD 


RH 


EXISTENCE 


Sustenance  of  the  body  is  effected  through  the  food  eaten. 
The  repair-food  keeps  the  body  ahve,  the  fuel-food  provides 
it  with  energy  and  body-heat. 

The  tissues  of  the  body  in  performing  their  functions  break 
down  into  waste  products.  This  process  is  called  katabolism. 
This  is  a  chemical  change,  that  is,  a  change  in  the  composi- 
tion of  substances.  All  chemical  change  is  accompanied  by 
production  of  heat.  Digestion  of  food  is  also  a  chemical 
change,  so  produces  heat.  Food  elements  are,  through  diges- 
tion, built  up  into  body  tissue.  This  is  called  anabolism.  As 
life  is  lived  this  double  process  of  breaking  down  and  build- 
ing up  tissue  goes  on.    Both  together  are  called  metabolism. 

To  build  the  body  up  as  its  living  breaks  it  down,  the  food 
eaten  must  bring,  in  its  heat  value,  the  equivalent  of  the  heat 
generated  as  the  tissues  break  down.  This  is  called  maintain- 
ing the  metabolic  eqidlibrium.  Every  5  hours  422  calories 
are  produced  by  adult  living  and  must  be  supplied  by  food, 
Afiy  work  done  requires  further  heat-energy. 

Well-nourished  bodies  produce  the  same  quantity  of  heat 
per  square  unit  of  surface  and  so  for  the  same  size  have  the 
same  heat-need.  In  the  morning,  fifteen  hours  after  eating, 
the  heat  production  of  the  body  is  least.  A  man  at  complete 
rest  who  weighs  approximately  154  lb.  {yo  kg.)  produces  in 
his  process  of  just  living  yo  calories  per  hour  ox  1680  calories 
in  24  hours.  This  is  called  the  basal  heat-production.  If  food 
is  eaten  for  simple  existence,  the  work  done  in  eating  is  about 
10%  of  this  basal  heat-production,  or  7  calories  per  hour  or 
168  calories  per  day.  The  existence  reqidremeiit  is  therefore 
18^0  —  calories  per  day  for  an  average-sized  man  at  rest. 

Exercise  is  necessary  to  life.  This  is  work  for  the  body 
and  requires  food  fuel  for  the  heat-energy  needed. 

200  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


ENERGY 


HniH 


WORK-FOOD 


Sedentary  occupation  and  two  hours'  exercise  increase  man's 
daily  food-need  from  1850  calories  to  2^00  calories  to  main- 
tain repair  and  provide  nutriment  and  body-heat, 

(Specific  facts  on  life-food  are  from  Dr.  Graham  Lusk's  "  Fundamental  Basis  of  Nutrition.") 

The  food-need  of  workers  has  been  closely  studied.  It  has 
been  found  that  the  amount  of  muscular  effort  exacted  by  differ- 
ent kinds  of  work  requires  differing  quantities  of  food-energy. 

For  Occupational  Energy-Requirement,  see  p.  222. 

The  quantity  of  energy-food  (carbohydrates  and  fats)  is  the 
chief  change  work  requires  in  diet.  But  in  hard  muscular  labor 
a  constant  relatively  high  supply  of  building-food  is  necessary 
(protein,  .25  lb.  per  day).  This  is  not  only  for  tissue-repair  but 
also  because  protein  facilitates  utilization  of  all  food  eaten. 
The  workers  it  is  who  need  a  liberal  meat-  and  egg-supply. 

Both  sugar  and  fat  can  be  digested  in  larger  proportion  by  those  at 
hard  work  than  by  others.  The  high  heat  of  fat  and  the  rapid  heat-giving 
of  sugar  make  these  desirable  work-foods.  Those  underfed  in  winter 
always  consume  sugar  in  abnormal  quantity  whenever  it  becomes  available. 

Starchy  foods  are  work-foods  of  unique  value,  because  starch  gives 
sustaining  energy — energy  that  lasts.  As  the  amount  of  food  of  the  work- 
diet  should  be  large  and  the  working  body  is  active,  food  with  little  cel- 
lulose (woody  fiber)  is  advisable.  When  it  is  present  in  large  quantity  it 
may  hasten  the  food  through  the  alimentary  tract  of  those  at  hard  work, 
before  it  has  had  time  to  be  digested.  Similarly  the  workers  find  white 
bread,  not  whole  wheat,  is  the  bread  they  should  eat.  Potatoes  and  rice 
have  such  fully  available  starch  as  to  be  most  desirable  work-foods.  Their 
protein  that  is  soluble  also  makes  them  valuable  in  work-diets. 

Green  vegetables  and  fruits  are  desirable  in  all  diets  and  need  to  be 
obtainable  by  workers. 

Much  water  and  air  in  abundance  are  essential  for  the  com- 
plete utilization  of  so  much  food  as  workers  need.  Time  to  mas- 
ticate and  digest  food  is  a  health-requirement  for  all  that  live. 

FOOD-SCIENCE  —  HUMAN  NUTRITION  201 


CHILDHOOD 


ran 


GROWTH 


Children  differ  from  adults  in  more  than  size  and  strength. 
They  are  themselves  still  being  physically  formed.  They  are 
not  simply  growing  larger  but  some  parts  of  them  are  also 
being  made.  Teeth,  for  instance,  develop  after  birth.  In  in- 
fancy the  digestive  agencies  are  not  those  of  adult  life.  A 
child  under  nine  months  lacks  ptyalin  (a  digestive  ferment), 
which  aids  in  digesting  starch,  so  should  not  be  fed  starch. 
The  child-body  is  more  largely  water  than  that  of  the  adult. 
This  is  one  reason  why  it  has  less  resistance  to  infectious  dis- 
eases.   Proper  nourishment  increases  physical  resistance. 

Development  of  unformed  parts  of  the  child-body,  growth 
of  all  the  body,  need  of  learning  to  live  and  gradually  to  eat 
the  foods  usual  for  humanity,  are  some  of  the  physical  occu- 
pations of  childhood.  Exercise  of  muscle,  sleep,  mental  work 
in  exploring  and  understanding  the  environment,  also  affect  the 
functioning  of  the  body  and  its  food-need  as  the  child  grows. 

Effect  of  food  is  more  immediate  in  childhood  than  it  always 
is  later.  When  undernourished,  children  are  not  well  nor  well- 
grown.  Science  finds  child-health  depends  more  upon  food 
than  was  realized  earlier.  The  food- habits  formed  are  scarcely 
less  important  than  the  foods  eaten.  To  make  health  for 
children  they  must  be  fed  according  to  their  need. 

Quantities  of  Food  for  Children  (Weight  as  Purchased) 


Amount  Daily 

Child  ....        2  yrs. 
Child  ....    2-5  yrs. 
Child  ....    6-9  yrs. 
Girl.    .    .    .    10-12  yrs. 
Boy  ....    10-11  yrs. 

lib. 
lilb. 
If  lb. 

2  lb. 

2  lb. 

3  lb. 
2flb. 
2flb. 
2^  lb. 
2ilb. 

15-16  yrs Boy 

1 5-16  yrs Girl 

13-14  yrs Boy 

13-14  yrs Girl 

At  1 2  yrs Boy 

With  much  outdoor  life  such  as  all  children  should  have,  these  quantities 
may  be  increased.    Exercise  and  air  aid  in  full  use  of  food  by  the  body. 


202 


FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


LIVING 


HI?I 


CHILD-FOOD 


The  kinds  of  food  children  are  fed  are  most  important 
because  (i)  children  are  not  equally  able  at  all  ages  to  eat 
all  foods  (bdow)»  (2)  foods  affect  one  another  very  differently 

/an  excess  of  carbohydrates  increases  fermentation,  so  forms  acids  in  the  body.    Acids  dis-\ 
Vsolve  mineral  food-salts  and  carry  from  the  body  those  needed  for  bone -growth  and  tissue/ > 

(3)  food-constituents  in  different  foods  are  not  exactly  alike 

/all  proteins  are  not ;  vegetable  proteins  are  less  complete  than  animal ;  com  contains\ 
Vprotein  for  repair-maintenance  but  not  for  growth  ;   milk  contains  the  growth-protein/  * 

Growth  depends  upon  the  growth-impulse  in  the  living  organ- 
ism and  an  adequate  supply  of  building-  and  growth-food. 

Modern  food-investigation  has  discovered  that  some  foods 
have  a  growth-influence  that  usual  building-foods  lack.  Bictter- 
fat  and  egg-yolk  are  such  growth-foods.  No  other  fats,  either 
animal  or  vegetable,  are  found  to  possess  this  special  growth- 
power  upon  the  body,  so  in  this  respect  there  cannot  be  an 
adequate  substitute  for  butter,  at  least  while  the  body  is 
growing.  It  is  therefore  especially  important  that  butter  and 
eggs  constantly  be  in  the  diet  for  all  from  infancy  to  maturity. 

Science  does  not  find  that  the  growth-impulse  becomes 
inactive  save  as  it  has  had  expression  in  growth.  Yet  it  is 
not  usual  for  those  denied  the  conditions  for  growth  in  child- 
hood and  youth  to  enjoy  these  later. 

FOOD-CONSTITUENTS  OF  NUTRIENTS  OF  ChILD-DiET  (After  Olsen) 


Age 

P 

F 

CH 

Calories 

CH 

F 

P 

Age 

li  yrs. 

43 

35 

100 

910 

1877 

170 

48 

79 

14-15  yrs. 

2  yrs. 

44 

36 

IIO 

972 

1737 

245 

47 

72 

ii-i3yrs. 

3  yrs. 

50 

3« 

120 

1050 

1270 

150 

44 

60 

8-9  yrs. 

4  yrs. 

53 

42 

135 

II57 

1224 

145 

43 

5^ 

5  yrs. 

Grams  are  used  as  the  unit  of  weight  (x  oz.  =  28.35  grams).    Basis  for  table  above  was,  in 
grams,  CH  420  —  /'  roc —  P  100,  for  adults. 

Diet-experts  differ  somewhat  in  the  standards  they  advise.    See  p.  223. 

Heat  value  (calories)  varies  less  for  the  different  ages  than  food-weight. 
Compare  these  in  tables.  Note  different  proportions  of  food- 
constituents  at  different  ages. 


FOOD-SCIENCE  —  HUMAN  NUTRITION 


203 


CHILD-DIET 


Km 


AGE  COMBmATIONS 


Nature  always  does  much  to  sustain  strength  and  to  restore 
health  after  disease.  Diet  aids  nature  when  it  is  such  as  can 
nourish  the  body  during  growth  and  in  illness,  but  food  that 
overtaxes  a  growing  or  diseased  body  by  excess  or  wrong  food 
hinders  growth  and  return  to  health  and  may  .leave  the  body 
permanently  weakened. 

It  is  important  the  growing  body  be  progressively  fed  but 
not  more  rapidly  than  it  has  the  power  to  use  foods  new  to 
it.  Type  of  food-preparation  needs  to  change  too,  from  liqidd 
food  to  soft  foods y  then  finely  chopped  and  finally  coarser, 
dried  food,  compelling  mastication. 

Foods  Needed  Child-Age 


Before  9  months  —  Milk.     At  9  months  —  Milk,  gruel  (cereal),  gelatin  ; 
water  between  meals. 
I  yr. —  Milk,  gruel  (cereal),  broth  (chicken  or  mutton). 
i-i|-yrs. —  Add  butter  and  ripe  peach  (skinned), 
lir-i^yrs. —  Add  potato  (baked),  orange  juice. 
\\-2  yrs. —  Add  ^gg  (soft). 

2|^yrs. —  Increase  variety  of  similarfoods  (note  belowfoodsexcluded). 
2i-3i  yrs.  —  Add  digestible,  young,  fresh  vegetables,  as  peas,  beans, 
squash,  and,  every  2  or  3  days,  meat  (as  chicken,  mutton 
chop,  beefsteak,  roast). 
3I— 5  yrs. —  Eggs  and  meat  on  alternate  days.   Light  dessert,  as  custard, 
tapioca,  gelatin. 
5-7  yrs. —  Greater  variety,  but  observe  exclusions  stated  below. 
7-1 1  yrs. —  All  foods  permitted  earlier,  but  more  substantial  diet.    Few 
foods  at  a  meal,  but  great  variety  in  meals  so  as  to  form 
taste  for  all  wholesome  foods. 
ii-i4yrs. —  Girls' and  boys' food-needs  begin  to  differ.   Girls  need  J  less 
food.   Girls  prefer  more  delicate  and  less  highly-flavored 
foods.   Girls  tend  to  undereat.    Boys  often  overeat  meat ; 
this  may  cause  eczema.   Diet  should  not  be  too  largely  ani- 
mal food,  though  more  is  needed  now.   See  page  opposite. 
14-16  yrs. —  Food-needs  of  both  boys  and  girls  approach  those  of  adult- 
life.    Late  eating  at  this  age  and  stimulating  foods  and 
drinks  will    ruin  the   constitution.     Regulation   of   life- 
processes  now  gives  tone  to  the  body,  strength,  and  con- 
trol for  maturity. 


(Adapted  from  "  What  Children  Should  Eat."  —  Greer) 

204  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


RESTRICTIONS 


Hn?i 


CHILD-DIET 


Nature  requires  that  food  be  so  adjusted  to  the  growing 
body  that  the  diet  not  only  supply  the  changing  body-need  as 
the  body  grows  but  also  aid  the  body-processes.  All  foods 
not  possible  as  yet  for  the  growing  body  to  digest  must  be 
withheld  during  growth.  The  food-restrictions  in  childhood 
are  no  less  important  than  in  disease,  when  nature  necessitates 
the  regaining  of  lost  strength  before  the  body  can  again  be 
normally  taxed  by  work  and  life. 

Diet  may  affect  directly  health  of  teeth.  It  should  contain  starchy  food 
stimulating  mastication  (as  brown  bread),  and  fresh  fruit,  as  the  apple,  at 
the  end  of  the  meal.  This  exercises  the  mouth  so  that  it  frees  itself  of 
food,  and  leaves  it  fresh  and  physiologically  clean.  —  Dr.  Sims  Wallace. 

Diet-Exclusions  During  Childhood 


Omit  until  after  the  Second  Teeth 

Fat,  except  cream,  butter,  oil  (as  prescribed) ;  other  fats  are  less  di- 
gestible (butter  fat  promotes  growth). 

Acid  foods  (tomatoes,  vinegar,  pickled  foods);  acids  remove  from  the 
body  salts  which  promote  bone-growth. 

Woody-fiber  vegetables,  as  cucumbers,  radishes,  celery  (raw) ;  carrots 
permitted  if  digested. 

Fresh,  warm  breads.  Preserved  foods  of  all  kinds.  Bread  not  easily 
crumbed  is  not  reached  by  the  digestive  juices. 

Omit  throughout  Childhood 

Pies,  pastry  of  all  kinds,  rich  cake,  rich  nuts,  gravies,  dressings,  and 

heavy  foods. 
Sugar  is  needed  but  not  in  excess ;  candy  (only  simple  and  homemade). 
Coffee,  tea,  and  all  beverages  except  water,  milk,  cocoa.  Coffee  and 

tea  stimulate  but  do  not  nourish  ;  tea  is  constipating,  so  holds  toxins 

of  waste  products  in  the  body. 


I^ood  iittoxicatioit  (see  p.  207) 

For  children  —  The  special  diet  indicated  on  page  207  is  advised  for  two 
months  after  an  attack,  then  i  ^gg  a  day  ;  two  weeks  later,  milk  with 
4%  fat ;  two  weeks  later,  sugar  cereals  and  cooked  fruits  slightly.  In 
six  months  return  to  regular  diet,  but  with  little  sweet  food.  If  illness 
returns  upon  adding  any  food,  exclude  it  (Backford).  During  such 
attacks  plenty  of  air  and  little  exercise  are  advised. 

Mineral  salts  are  a  most  definite  growth-need.   Lime  aids  skeleton-growth. 

FOOD-SCIENCE  —  HUMAN  NUTRITION  205 


ILLNESS 


ffl?i 


CONDITIONS 


Illness  is  the  result  of  the  body's  not  working  well  in  its 
living-processes.  The  cause  may  be  (i)  absence  of  conditions 
necessary  for  wholesome  living,  as  lack  of  proper  diet ;  (2)  in- 
fection, as  bacteria  in  food,  air,  water ;  (3)  disordered  organs 
resulting  from  work-strain  or  past  disease ;  (4)  weakness  of 
physical  constitution,  as  tendency  to  tuberculosis. 

During  illness  the  diseased  condition  usually  needs  to  be 
combated  by  medical  means,  but  the  food  and  conditions  of 
living  must  also  be  adjusted  to  the  prevailing  state  of  the 
body.  What  changes  in  food  and  living  are  required  by  the 
changed  conditions  of  the  body,  the  physician  must  determine. 

Food  during  serious  disease  must  be  accurately  adjusted  to 
the  exact  physical  need.  Sometimes  disease  so  changes  the 
body  that  special  types  of  foods  are  particularly  unfavorable. 
Some  disease  so  wastes  the  body  that  it  needs  especial  build- 
ing. Disease  of  all  kinds  affects  digestion,  so  necessitates 
modification  of  diet  and  most  intelligent  care  of  food  for  inva- 
lids. Complete  freshness  and  cleanliness  of  food,  person,  and 
surroundings,  with  habitual  proper  nutrition,  avert  disease  and 
give  physical  resistance  to  infection. 

Disease  introduces  poisonous  substances  into  the  body.  The 
weakened  body  usually  fails  of  power  to  remove  these,  or  even 
those  of  the  waste  products  of  its  natural  living. 

Water  is  therefore  generally  7ieededin  inc7'eased  qiiaiitity^  andfood^ 
in  most  cases  of  acute  illness^  in  decreased  {also  iii  liquid  form  u?iless 
the  physician  otherwise  prescribes). 

Strength  must  not,  however,  be  lost  through  unnecessary 
lack  of  nutrition.  Food-habits  should  be  as  little  disturbed  as 
the  conditions  of  the  illness  permit. 

Convalescence  —  the  period  of  returning  strength  after  ill- 
ness —  requires  that  food  be  plentiful  but  easily  digested. 

206  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


^^H^^^H^^TI^^l 

■ 

I 

1     ^ 

1 

1 

^^^^^^^^^ 

H 

^ 

^■LZiJL 

^^^^  jj 

A  TEA-TRAY 


NEEDS 


I^THH 


DIETS  m  ILLNESS 


General  diets  for  illness  (see  below)  need  careful  adjust- 
ment for  different  individuals.  A  body  incapacitated  by  illness 
usually  needs  foods  it  can  easily  digest.  Some  foods  especially 
needed  in  illness  often  require  special  preparation  to  make 
them  digest ;  milk  may. 

Liquid  diet  is  usual  in  acute  disease.    It  is  advisable  whenever  a  patient 
is  in  bed,  and  in  the  late  afternoon  for  all  not  well.    It  consists  of 
Water,  milk,  whey,  barley-water,  gruel,  beef-juice,  broth,  egg-white. 
Light  diet  is  used  whenever  substantial  food  is  needed  without  exacting 
the  exertion  necessary  to  digest  usual  solid  food.    It  consists  of 
Eggs  (soft),  milk  toast,  milk  soups,'Broths  (seasoned),  beef  (scraped), 
oysters,  chicken,  simple  puddings  (as  soft  custards,  tapioca),  jel- 
lies of  gelatin,  digestible  fruits. 

Convalescent  diet  is  varied  with  the  disease,  so  needs  to  be  prescribed 
by  the  physician.  Few  and  digestible  foods  need  to  be  given,  in 
small  quantities  but  frequently.    This  consists  of 

Eggs,  oysters,  clams,  meats  (tender),  fish  (fresh),  readily  digested 
vegetables  (as  potato  baked,  rice),  bread  (well-baked),  fruits 
(fresh  and  cooked),  milk. 

Laxative  Foods  (see  p.  45)  Water  in  Illness  (see  p.  206) 

Diarrhea  diet  —  Thoroughly  cooked  spinach,  turnip  greens,  or  mustard 
tops.    One  tablespoonful  or  more  4  times  daily  for  1-2  weeks,  then 
with  breakfast  and  luncheon  for  several  weeks  after  return  to  regu- 
lar diet.    (Preferably  no  other  food,  but  if  any  only  little  dry  toast  or 
corn  bread.)    Persons  suffering  from  diarrhea  are  very  sensitive  to 
cold,  even  to  cold  food  (Wilson). 
Food  intoxication  —  When  food  is  not  digesting  (causing  eruption,  etc.) 
Avoid  —  Sweets,  fats,  eggs,  raw  fruits  (especially  oranges),  straw- 
berries, rhubarb,  tomatoes,  salads,  shell-fish,  tea,  coffee,  pastry, 
gravies,  butter,  cream,  cod-liver  oil,  eggs  even  in  cooked  foods. 
Allow — Milk  (skimmed),  beef,  mutton,  fowl,  fish  in  moderation, 
cereals,  bread,  and  all  vegetables  not  excluded  above,  cooked 
fruits,  thick  soups.   (If  cereal  is  sweetened,  saccharin  should  be 
used  instead  of  cane  sugar.) 

Digestibility  of  Foods  (see  p.  218) 

FOOD-SCIENCE  —  HUMAN  NUTRITION  207 


DISEASE-RESISTANCE 


FflH 


m  GENERAL 


Resistance  to  disease  is  secured  by  building  a  strong  body, 
providing  it  with  fresh,  pure  food  properly  adjusted  to  the  age, 
sex,  size,  work  of  the  person,  and  to  climate  and  season,  and 
by  insuring  an  environment  of  such  wholesomeness  and  clean- 
liness as  will  supply  to  all  pure  water  and  air  and  stamp  out 
disease-sources,  such  as  unsanitary  disposal  of  garbage. 

Preventive  medicine  removes  disease-dmtgers  from  the 
environment  and  increases  body-resistance.  Conditions  of  liv- 
ing are  of  first  importance.  No  body  can  be  well  nourished 
save  as  food  is  available.  Protection  against  disease  comes 
with  provision  for  living.  Illness  is  found  to  be  social  in  its 
effects  and  causes.    An  ill  person  is  a  general  health-menace. 

A  debilitating  disease  prevalent  in  the  South,  science  says,  requires, 
for  elimination  of  it,  nourishing  food,  sanitary  disposal  of  sewage,  and  that 
children  should  wear  shoes  to  prevent  contagion  from  soil-contamination 
by  waste  products  from  those  so  diseased. 

Natural  immunity  to  disease-infection  increases  for  children 
with  age.  The  composition  of  the  body  changes ;  its  water- 
content  decreases.  The  excess  of  water  in  an  infant's  body 
lowers  resistance  to  infection.  To  lessen  this,  milk  may  be  de- 
creased for  a  child  after  one  year  to  the  amount  in  adult-diet. 
Carbohydrate  food  increases  the  water  in  the  body  (Cernzy). 

Constitutional  inferiority  opens  a  body  to  disease.  Diet  may 
minimize  this.  Secretions  of  the  ductless  glands  of  the  body 
are  now  known  to  affect  body-growth  and  health.  Disturbed 
nutrition  may  cause  defective  development  of  these  glands  and 
in  turn  be  caused  by  their  resulting  defective  functioning.  Ma- 
ture health  is  thus  endangered  and  work-endurance  lessened. 

Mineral  salts  effect  nutrition  as  well  as  furnish  material  for 
teeth  and  bone-growth.  A  mixed  diet  provides  food  salts  dur- 
ing adult-health,  but  not  always  in  illness  and  childhood. 

20S  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


SPECIFIC  NEEDS 


HH 


DISEASE-RESISTANCE 


T/ie  growth-impulse  can  operate  to  mature  the  body  only 
as  the  foods  that  will  further  growth  and  build  tissue,  both 
bone  and  muscle,  are  supplied  for  the  use  of  the  body  in  its 
growth.  The  kind  of  food  is  therefore  as  vital  a  need  as 
the_  amount,  particularly  during  the  years  of  physical  forma- 
tion. Not  only  strength  and  health  during  growth  but  later 
too  are  effected  by  proper  growth-diet. 

Overrestriction  of  diet  undernourishes  the  body,  leaves  it  undeveloped 

and  open  to  disease. 
Maladjustment  of  diet  produces  malnutrition  that  causes  malformation 

or  malfunctioning  of  the  body  which  may  last  throughout  life. 
Selection  of  proper  food  and  thorough  mastication  result  in  nutrition. 

During  physical  development  all  constitutions  are  delicate, 
so  easily  harmed.  To  grow  physically  and  into  mature  health 
with  high  resistance  to  disease  requires  science-guided  care 
in  childhood  and  youth,  also  during  disease. 

An  ice-bag  applied  to  a  child's  head  during  fevers  may  make  its  body- 
temperature  subnormal  for  life. 

Reenforcing  a  delicate  child's  diet  by  feeding  1-2  T  cream  in  mid- 
afternoon,  as  is  desirable,  may  disorder  digestion  if  rest  is  not 
enforced  for  1-2  hours  afterwards. 

Adult-treatment  of  childhood  and  youth,  like  adult-diet, 
may  not  only  do  injury  at  the  time  but  so  weaken  the  consti- 
tution as  to  undermine  later  health. 

Starving  a  child  in  illness  may  injure  its  intestines,  while  such  treatment 
in  adult-illness  may  be  desirable.  Sunshine,  so  important  in  plant- 
growth,  is  a  powerful  agency  in  tissue-building  of  children  in  need 
of  much  tissue-repair,  as  is  a  tuberculous  child.  But  sun  treatment 
(heliotherapy)  for  adults  is  not  so  assuredly  advisable. 

Exercise,  as  well  as  food,  is  necessary  to  growth  and  to 
bodily  habits  of  health.  But  such  competitive  sports  as  may 
strain  the  heart,  as  can  football,  may  injure  growing  boys. 

FOOD-SCIENCE  —  HUMAN  NUTRITION  209 


LIFE-EXPECTATION 


Hm 


CHANGES  —  STATUS 


The  population  of  the  United  States  of  America  is  ap- 
proaching 100,000,000.    In  19 10  those  over  70  years  num- 
bered 2,270,021.    There  were  about  2,500,000  births  and 
about  1,350,000  deaths. 
Causes  of  Death  .  U.S.A.  —  1912 


Accidents      .     .     . 
Tuberculosis      .     . 
Heart  diseases 

.     .     182,000 
.     .     1 54,000 
.     .     1 50,000 

Nervous  diseases  .     . 
Pneumonia   .... 
Intestinal  diseases 

.     138,000 
.     132,000 
.     123,000 

Numbers  are  approximate.  (Hoffman's  "  Chances  of  Death  and  Ministry  of  Health  ") 

Of  those  that  died  in  19 12  about  18%  (or  236,500)  were 
under  one  year;  25%  (or  329,400)  were  under  5  years. 
Only  about  one  half  of  the  deaths  (57%)  were  therefore  of 
those  over  5  years.  Yet  it  is  in  the  combat  of  infectious 
diseases,  which  are  the  chief  health  dangers  of  the  young,  that 
science  has  made  its  greatest  medical  achievement.  As 
science  has  succeeded  in  this  it  has  increased  the  probable 
length  of  life  for  the  young. 
Expectation  of  Life  New  York  Life-Table 


1879-1881 

Age  Range 

1909-1911 

Gain 

Loss 

41     yrs. 
32.6    " 
23.9    " 

To  5  yrs. 

25-30  yrs. 

40-45  yrs. 

After  40  yrs.    Constant  loss 

At  85  yrs. 

52     yrs. 
34-3    " 
234    " 

1 1      yrs. 

1.7  " 

6  mos. 

3i  yrs. 

Before  40  yrs.  (women)  Life-Expectancy  29  yrs.  This  is  a^«m  from  1881-1911 

"        "      "        (men)          "                 "             25  yrs.      and  more  than  for  men 

After    40  yrs.  (women)      "               "           18  yrs.  This  is  a/^^Hrom  1881-1911 

"          "      "        (men)         "                 "             15  yrs.      and  more  than  for  men 

Death  after  50  years  is  due  mainly  to  degenerative  diseases, 
especially  of  heart  and  kidneys.  Science  ascribes  this  to 
strenuous  life,  lack  of  exercise  in  the  open  air,  excess  of 
nitrogenous  food  and  spiritous  liquids. 


210 


FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


CONDITIONS  —  NEEDS 


HiTlH 


OLD  AGE 


Old  age  brings  a  body  that  is  gradually  wearing  out.  This 
occurs  naturally  but  is  hastened  by  work-  or  anxiety-strains 
or  earlier  illnesses.  Many  body-processes  become  slower. 
Health  in  age  requires  increased  oxygen-supply,  simple  diet 
and  life,  and  exercise  according  to  individual  conditions. 

Some  body-organs  lose  power  to  function  fully  —  the  heart 
usually  does ;  others  may  degenerate  and  lessen  disease-re- 
sistance or  cause  illness.  The  kidneys  act  sluggishly  and  are 
unable  to  throw  off  so  readily  fluids  and  salts.  Salt  should  be 
lessened  in  the  diet.  If  the  waste  products  of  body-metabolism 
are  not  completely  eliminated,  they  become  poisons.  The  food- 
intake  in  age,  especially  of  protein,  should  not  be  more  than 

/*,  70  gms. ;   ^,140  gms. ;   CH^  90-160  gms.  (Hirschfeld) ;  that  is, 
P,  2i  oz. ;  7%  4f  4-  oz. ;   C//,  3-5  oz. 

Body-deterioration  usually  includes  hardening  of  the  arte- 
ries. If  extreme,  less  water  is  advisable,  as  dilation  of  inelastic 
vessels  produces  overstrain.  When  arteries  harden,  foods  with 
lime  are  inadvisable.    For  Lime  in  Food,  see  p.  219. 

Diseases  of  the  respiratory  tract  are  also  a  general  danger 
in  old  age.    (Scott's  "  The  Road  to  Healthy  Old  Age.") 

Human  bodies,  like  animal,  tend  to  increase  fat  with  age. 
Excess  fat  interferes  with  body-processes  and  causes  physical 
degeneration.  Obesity  is  therefore  to  be  avoided.  Diet  needs 
to  be  selected  to  prevent  corpulency ;  less  food  is  needed. 
Water  taken  with  food  increases  body-fat ;  at  noon  not  more 
than  half  a  glass  should  be  taken  ;  at  night  none  until  i  ^ 
hours  after  eating.  The  evening  meal  should  be  very  light 
and  without  bread,  preferably  of  only  one  food,  either  vege- 
table or  fruit.  Sleep  should  not  follow  eating  immediately, 
for  body-secretions  are  then  inactive,  so  food  fails  to  digest. 

FOOD-SCIENCE  —  HUMAN  NUTRITION  21 1 


YOUTH-DIET 


Hm 


DEVELOPMENT 


Youth  is  a  period  of  significant  physical  development. 
Body-growth  is  being  completed ;  the  organs  of  the  maturer 
functions  of  the  body  are  developing ;  the  body  is  maturing 
physically.  The  individual's  mental  powers  are  seeking  more 
definite  expression.  The  social  relations  of  life, are  becoming 
more  conscious.  Life  at  this  age  is  therefore  full  of  newness 
and  moves  rapidly  in  its  changes. 

The  growth-impulse  of  the  body  needs  plentiful  nourish- 
ment for  free  and  full  growth.  Whether  physical  growth  that 
is  delayed  by  lack  of  nourishment  can  be  effected  after  indefi- 
nite postponement  is  not  yet  known. 

Ductless  glands  of  the  body  play  a  more  important  part  in 
its  development  and  health  than  was  realized  earlier.  The 
thymus  gland  delays  too  early  development  of  the  later  body- 
functions.  The  thyroid  gland  promotes  the  differentiation  of 
developing  organs.  Intricate  interrelations  are  found  to  exist 
between  all  such  glands.  Their  wholesome  functioning  is  of 
greatest  importance  to  growth  and  mature  health.  Healthful 
youth  furthers  this.  Disturbing  illness  prevents  normal  de- 
velopment and  functioning  of  these  glands. 

Food  that  is  strengthening  and  sustaining  rather  than  stim- 
ulating is  the  need  of  youth.  Such  specific  growth  foods  as 
egg-yolk  and  butter-fat  should  be  abundant  in  youth-diet. 
Mineral  salts  too  are  particularly  needed.  Excess  of  food  and 
starvation  alike  remove  these  from  the  body.  The  body  at  this 
time  is  not  very  resistant  to  disease.  In  fevers  the  nitrogen- 
waste  is  extreme.  Science  now  finds  this  lessened  by  feeding 
carbohydrates  in  abundance.  This  must,  however,  be  under 
a  physician's '  direction.  Both  scientists  and  physicians  are 
now  interested  in  diet  as  never  before. 

See  Sensible  Diet,  p.  213 ;  Diet-Quantities,  p.  219. 

212  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


MATURITY 


i^m 


ADULT-DIET 


Adult-life  is  the  time  of  greatest  responsible  effort.  Health 
is  basal  to  energy.  It  is  secured  for  the  well-developed  body 
by  scientific  regulation  of  diet  and  of  habits  of  life  and  work. 

Adult-diet  is  more  affected  by  occupation  than  that  at  other 
periods.    Lighter  work  needs  both  less  food  and  lighter. 

Habitual  diet  often  seems  to  satisfy  the  needs  of  the  body 
more  fully  than  science  would  anticipate.  The  Japanese  that 
are  accustomed  to  a  small  protein  intake  seem  to  flourish  upon 
it.  Scientific  experiment  shows  that  in  adult-life  less  protein 
than  is  commonly  eaten  is  advisable.  A  very  small  amount 
(20  gms.  or  I  —  oz.  daily)  has  been  found  adequate  to  sustain 
life  and  light  work.  Though  great  reduction  of  protein  is  not 
generally  advised,  a  decreased  intake  should  be  tried.  Adult- 
life  is  the  safe  period  for  scientific  experimentation  with  diet. 

Sensible  diet  —  To  keep  warm  and  give  energy  for  work,  Dr.  E.  L. 
Fish  advises  eating  energy  or  fuel  foods  —  potatoes,  bread,  cereals,  corn- 
bread,  sirup,  and  other  sugars.  To  keep  muscles  and  organs  in  repair, 
eat  a  limited  and  fixed  amount  of  repair  foods  —  meat,  eggs,  cheese,  nuts, 
flesh  foods,  peas,  beans,  and  lentils.  Do  not  increase  the  repair  foods 
with  increase  in  work  or  exposure  to  cold;  increase  the  fuel-foods. 

Eat  fruit  every  day.  Canned  fruits  are  good.  Cooked  fruit  is  often 
better  than  dubious  fresh  fruit,  but  some  fresh  fruit  is  essential.  Eat 
fresh,  green  vegetables  whenever  you  can  get  them.  Thoroughly  wash 
all  raw  foods.  Eat  some  bulky  vegetables  of  low  food-value,  like  carrots, 
parsnips,  spinach,  turnips,  squash,  and  cabbage  to  stimulate  the  bowels 
and  give  flavor  to  the  diet  and  prevent  overnourishment.  Eat  slowly  and 
taste  your  food  well  and  it  will  slide  down  at  the  proper  time.  Do  not 
nibble  your  food  timorously ;  eat  it  boldly  and  confidently.  A  glass  or 
two  of  water  at  meals  is  not  harmful  if  you  do  not  wash  your  food  down 
with  it.    An  unsocial  dinner  table  will  upset  all  the  food-values. 

First,  last,  and  all  the  time,  be  moderate ;  avoid  overnourishment  and 
overweight.  Restrict  fuel  foods  and  burn  up  body-fat  if  tending  toward 
obesity.  See  Fatigue,  p.  216;  Body  as  a  Chemical  Laboratory,  p.  216; 
Diet  Quantities,  p.  219. 

FOOD-SCIENCE  —  HUMAN  NUTRITION  213 


FOREIGN  FOODS 


RHH 


OCCURRENCE 


Many  foods  no  longer  considered  foreign  because  so  usual 
in  the  home  market  are  produced  only  in  other  lands,  as  cocoa, 
tea,  coffee.  Food-sources  and  food-exchange  disclose  such 
facts  about  the  origin  of  foods.  Food  luxuries  and  delicacies, 
as  spices  and  tropical  fruits,  have  long  been  transported  as 
nations  have  grown  in  wealth.  But  only  with  extended  com- 
merce have  imports  and  exports  of  substantial  foods,  as  beef 
from  Argentina,  become  significant  food-trade  practices. 

And  only  with  migration  of  workers  from  land  to  land  are 
the  staple,  fundamental  articles  of  diet  of  different  peoples 
disseminated.  The  foods  and  methods  of  preparation  are 
brought  by  the  immigrating  people  and  are  gradually  absorbed 
by  those  among  whom  they  come  to  live. 

The  population  of  America  is  composed  of  the  greatest 
variety  of  peoples.  See  p.  185.  Only  half  is  native-born  of 
native  parentage  ;  the  other  half  is  from  all  nations. 

Foreign-born  residents  number  aboiU  one  tenth  and  are 
distributed  as  follows : 


German 

2,501,000 

English 

.    900,000 

Austro-Hungarian  ,     . 

1,671,000 

Scotch  and  Welsh     . 

.     500,000 

Russian 

1,602,000 

Belgian  and  Dutch    . 

.     170,000 

Irish 

1,352,000 

Orientals 

.     146,863 

Italian 

1,343,000 

French  

.     117,000 

Scandinavian-Danish  . 

1,250,000 

The  native  foods  of  such  a  population  include  most  of  those 
known  to  present-day  civilization. 

The  varieties,  qualities,  and  preparations  of  cheese,  rice, 
breads,  starchy-vegetable  foods  (as  macaroni,  semolina,  po- 
lenta), of  green  vegetables  (as  spinach,  Swiss  chard)  and  sal- 
ads (as  chicory,  romaine,  escarole),  and  of  diet-accessories  (as 
olives,  olive  oil),  are  relatively  recent  as  American  foods. 


214 


FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


COMPARISON 


RH 


FOOD  OF  ALL  NATIONS 


For  the  masses  in  all  lands  the  usual  diet  is  still  mainly 
of  foods  locally  and  inexpensively  produced.  Transported  or 
expensive  foods  become  available  only  with  increasing  pros- 
perity.   Consumption  of  these  is  therefore  an  index  of  this. 

Meat,  the  most  costly  of  common  foods,  has  become  more 
widespread  in  its  use,  though  the  amount  eaten  is  somewhat 
controlled  by  climate,  and  its  use  by  individuals  is  decreased 
where  diet  is  directed  by  science.  By  workers  as  a  class  it 
is  needed  in  larger  quantity  than  by  others,  whose  building  food 
may  come  somewhat  more  largely  from  other  protein  foods. 

Scientific  investigation  is  showing  the  food-consumption 
of  different  nations. 


Meat-Consumption  (per  Capita  Annually) 


1910-1913 


Australia 

250  lb. 

Belgium  and  Holland     751b. 

Spain 

49  lb. 

United  States 

130  " 

France                              74  " 

Russia 

48  " 

Germany 

115  " 

Austria- Hungary            64  " 

Italy 

23  " 

England 

105  " 

In  Germany  over  three  times  as  much  meat  is  now  eaten 
as  a  century  ago ;  then  it  was  little  more  than  in  Italy  now. 

German  Meat-Consumption  181 6-1 907 


Munich        ^ 
Augsburg      >■  80. 2  kilos 
Nuremberg  J 


Berlin  1 

Karlsruhe    j-  79.9  kilos 
Mannheim  J 


Konigsberg  40.7  kilos 


Meat  Consumed  by  Workers  and  Others  (per  Capita  Yearly) 


Artisans  44.8  kilos 

Laborers  16.5    " 

(farm  and  day) 


Middle  class 

Lower      1 5    kilos 
Upper      10.5   " 


Higher  class  12  kilos 
[kilo  =  2.2  lb.] 


(All  data  from  Professor  Max  Rubner's  "Changes  in  the  Food  of  the  Masses.") 

Similar  studies  for  other  nations  have  not  been  made  so 
complete  as  this  on  meat-consumption. 


FOOD-SCIENCE  — HUMAN  NUTRITION 


215 


FATIGUE  — REST  BODY  AS  A  CHEMICAL  LABORATORY 

Fatigue.  Work  performed  by  any  one  of  the  body-cells  produces 
waste  products  and  other  changes  in  the  cells.  Up  to  a  certain  limit, 
work,  with  the  resulting  changes  in  the  cells,  is  beneficial  and  improves 
the  physical  condition  of  the  cells,  but  when  the  work  is  excessive,  too 
prolonged,  or  too  fast,  waste  products  begin  to  accumulate,  the  cells  be- 
come exhausted,  the  proper  changes  fail,  and  if  the  cells.are  not  properly 
rested,  damage  results.  If  the  work  is  continued  without  proper  rest, 
early  breaking  down  and  failure  of  the  individual  to  perform  his  task  are 
the  final  results.  —  B.  S.  Warren  in  Public-Health  Report, 

Rest  in  its  effect  upon  the  body  has  been  experimentally  studied  by 
science.  At  the  end  of  a  week  of  monotonous  work  the  reactions  of  the 
body  are  distinctly  more  sluggish  than  at  the  beginning,  after  a  day  of 
change.  The  sensitiveness  and  elasticity  of  the  body  as  well  as  its  energy 
are  thus  revived.  One  day  of  rest  in  seven  science  considers  needed  for 
preservation  of  body-elasticity  and  recuperative  power.  Recreation,  not 
inactivity,  is  the  body's  weekly  rest-need.  The  body  that  does  not  change 
its  activity  not  only  loses  its  power  to  change  but  also  wears  out  soon. 

Further  study  is  being  made  of  different  daily  activities  to  ascertain 
the  hours  of  work  propitious  for  health ;  also  to  what  kinds  of  recreation 
the  body  makes  the  fullest  wholesome  response. 

It  has  long  been  known  that  eight  to  nine  hours  of  sleep  are  required 
daily  to  give  the  adult  body  healthful  activity  in  its  living-processes. 

The  body  is  a  great  chemical  laboratory  which  is  constantly  dealing 
with  a  variety  of  chemical  compounds,  and  the  processes  are  of  a  com- 
plex and  unique  nature.  .  .  .  The  proteins,  the  carbohydrates,  fats,  etc. 
have  to  undergo  many  changes  in  the  course  of  their  amalgamation 
with  the  tissues  of  the  body.  They  are  ultimately  subjected  to  regres- 
sive (disintegrating)  processes  and  are  eliminated  from  the  body  in  the 
form  of  relatively  simple  compounds,  such  as  carbonic  acid,  urea,  and 
uric  acid.  This  long  series  of  physiologic  changes,  with  the  intermedi- 
ate products,  is  at  present  only  known  to  us  in  part.  .  .  .  This  chain  of 
events  may  result  in  the  production  not  only  of  useful  and  indifferent 
substances  but  also  of  injurious  and  toxic  bodies;  while  any  check  to 
the  normal  processes  of  elimination  may  lead  to  an  accumulation  in  the 
system  of  normal  waste  products  and  a  consequent  intoxication  (poison- 
ing). —  Allan  Macfadyen  in  Clinical  Journal. 

216  FOOD— WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


LIFE-SIGNIFICANCE  DIGESTION 

Humankind  digests  its  food  with  less  expenditure  of  energy 
than  do  animals.  It  therefore  has  more  energy  for  other  uses. 
Human  beings  can  do  more  work  and  endure  more  fatigue, 
also  exposure,  than  any  other  living  creature  of  similar  size 
because  less  taxed  and  occupied  with  digestion.  The  human 
digestive  tract  is  prepared  to  utilize,  not  only  with  relative  ease 
but  also  relative  completeness,  edible  plant  and  animal  foods. 

Though  body-constituents  and  food-constituents  are  the 
same,  food  cannot  without  change  be  used  by  the  body. 
Digestion  is  the  body-process  of  changing  food  into  the 
forms  necessary  for  body-utilization.  Food  to  be  digested 
must  be  made  soluble  in  the  body  so  it  can  pass  through  the 
wall  of  the  blood-vessels  into  the  blood-stream,  that  carries  it 
throughout  the  body. 

Of  the  five  food-constituents  two  only,  mineral  salts  and 
water,  pass  into  the  blood  unchanged.  Proteins,  carbohy- 
drates, fats,  must  be  changed  by  the  digestive  juices  and 
ferments  before  they  can  be  utilized  by  the  body. 

Digestion,  the  process  that  produces  these  food-changes,  is 
effected  through  the  operations  of  the  digestive  tract.  Though 
there  is  more  consciousness  of  food  when  it  is  in  the  mouth 
than  elsewhere  there  is  less  happening  to  it  then  than  later. 
As  it  passes  down  the  alimentary  tract  the  digestive  activity 
increases.  Food  is  retained  in  the  mouth  only  a  very  short 
time  even  when  thoroughly  masticated,  whereas  it  remains  in 
the  stomach  from  2  to  5  hours  and  usually  takes  about  2  days 
to  travel  the  entire  length  of  the  intestine  (12  hours  in  the 
small  intestine  and  36  hours  in  the  large). 

Food  is  eaten  at  intervals  of  ,^  to  ^  hours  during  the  day, 
a7id  food-waste  should  be  rem,oved  from,  the  body  once  in 
2/1-  hours,  preferably  in  the  morning  after  breakfast, 

FOOD  SCIENCE  —  HUMAN  NUTRITION  21 7 


h  I  PI  FOOD-UTILIZATION  ITnl 


The  se?ises  of  smell  and  taste^  Dr.  W.  Sternberg  insists,  recognize 
chemical  changes  in  food  more  sensitively  than  these  can  be  detected 
with  chemical  tests.  In  warmed-over  dishes,  especially  vegetables,  some 
chemical  change  has  occurred.  This  change  renders  them  less  whole- 
some, he  states,  for  the  person  that  finds  them  less  palatable.  Continued 
loss  of  appetite  leads  to  some  disease  of  dietary  deficiency  that  is  even 
less  easily  remedied  than  diseases  caused  by  overeating,  serious  as  these 
are.  The  science  of  cookery  is,  he  concludes,  far  more  than  applied 
chemistry,  physics,  and  application  of  heat.  It  includes  applied  physi- 
ology of  the  senses,  applied  aesthetics,  and  applied  psychology,  he  says, 
and  is  a  matter  of  taste  in  the  widest  sense  of  the  term. 

Digestibility  offoods^  though  differing  somewhat  for  individuals,  has 
been  determined  in  general  by  artificial  digestion  (their  solubility  in 
chemically  produced  digestive  juices)  and  experimental  digestion  (their 
utilization  by  the  body  tested  by  comparison  of  food-intake  and  waste- 
outgo).    The  tabulated  results  are  suggestive  in  selecting  dietaries. 
Digestibility  of  Nutrients  of  Different  Groups  of  Foods  and  Com- 
parison of  Specific  Foods ^  p.  196;  Food-Cha7'acte7'istics  as  Aids 
to  Digestibility^  p.  197;  Digestibility  of  Fruits^  p.  44;   Time  of 
Digestio7t  of  Eggs ^  p.  109;  of  Animal  Foods ^  p.  196. 

Order  of  Digestibility  of  Animal  Foods  (After  Thompson) 


Oysters,  eggs  (raw  or  soft-boiled),  sweetbreads ; 

Whitefish  (boiled  or  broiled),  as  bluefish,  shad,  weakfish,  smelts ; 

Chicken  (boiled  or  broiled),  roast  beef  (lean),  eggs  (scrambled  or  omelet); 

Mutton  (roasted  or  boiled),  squab,  partridge,  bacon  (crisp) ; 

Fowl  (roasted),  capon,  turkey  (boiled)  ;  tripe,  brains,  liver ; 

Lamb  (roasted),  chops  (mutton  or  lamb),  corned  beef,  veal; 

Ham,  duck,  snipe,  venison,  rabbit,  game ; 

Salmon,  mackerel,  herring,  goose  (roasted) ; 

Lobster,  crabs,  pork ;  smoked,  dried,  pickled  fish  or  meats. 


The  meats  that  digest  less  readily  increase  the  danger  of  gastro- 
intestinal disturbance.  Delicate,  tender  meats  (porterhouse  steak,  beef 
roast,  lamb  chops,  chicken-breast,  bird)  digest  more  readily  than  other 
meats  for  persons  of  i^nperfect  digest io7t.  In  skin  inflammations,  high 
blood-pressure  (due  to  hardened  arteries),  rheumatism,  and  thyroid  hy- 
persecretion meat  is  inadvisable.  Meat  as  it  is  eaten  produces  heat  in 
excess  of  its  energy  value.    It  is  therefore  lessened  in  summer  diet. 

21s  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


Hm 


FOOD-UTILIZATION 


Hm 


Construction  of  the  body  (growth)^  its  integrity  (health)^  its  re- 
generation (repair)^  depend  upon  food-utilization.  If  the  body  cannot 
use  the  food  eaten  it  is  not  nourished.    (Food-quantities,  pp.  222-223.) 

Food-proteins  are  made  up  of  about  twenty  simpler  compounds  (amino- 
acids).  All  these  are  not  in  every  food-protein.  The  food-proteins  that 
contain  the  compounds  that  body-protein  is  made  up  from  are  called 
"  complete  "  proteins  (milk,  egg-white,  meat);  others,  incomplete  (wheat, 
corn,  gelatin).  "  Complete "  proteins  maintain  the  body  and  promote 
growth.  Of  the  incomplete,  wheat-protein  maintains  the  adult  body  but 
does  not  further  growth.  Corn-protein  alone  can  do  neither.  Milk  adds 
what  it  lacks.  It  is  not  nutritively  significant  whether  protein  is  animal 
or  vegetable,  but  whether  it  contains  what  is  needed  for  body-protein. 
"  A  low  intake  of  suitable  protein  may  be  infinitely  more  advantageous  to 
nutrition  than  a  surfeit  of  an  *  incomplete '  protein."    (Mendel.) 

Food-fats  differ  in  body-use.  Butter-fat,  egg-fat,  cod-liver-oil  fat  fur- 
ther growth.    Lard,  olive-oil,  cottonseed-oil  do  not  promote  growth. 

Food-carbohydrates  and  fats  are  used  by  living  body-cells  in  increased 
quantity  when  present  in  large  amounts,  hence  obesity  from  overeating. 

Food-salts  differ  in  foods,  also  in  body-function.  If  calcium  is  absent 
from  the  blood  excessive  nerve-irritability  results.  Food-salts  are  im- 
peratively needed  for  body-structure  and  regulation  of  body-function. 
(Children  need  lime  in  food  for  bone-growth.  The  aged  need  food  with 
little  lime  because  it  hardens  arteries.) 


Lime  in  Foods 

(From  Aron's  Table) 

% 

% 

% 

% 

Cheese    1.35 

Milk     .151 

Dates 

.08 

Bread          .03 

Butter       .35 

Beans  .145 

Rice 

.078 

Egg-white  .02 

Spinach    .196 

Peas     .12 

Cabbage 

.06 

Potatoes     .02 

Egg-yolk  .19 

Cocoa  .115 

Oranges 

.06 

Meat           .006 

Too  much  fat  or  carbohydrate  in  food,  too  much  food,  or  too  litde, 
or  excess  of  carbon  dioxid  causes  loss  from  the  body  of  such  food-salts 
(alkalies).    Such  loss  produces  acid-intoxication. 

Note  :  Meat^  egg-white^  grains^  breads  potatoes^  lack  lime. 

The  operations  of  the  body  are  delicate  in  their  mechanism  and  the 
body  most  sensitive  to  minute  quantities  of  many  substances.  (Epi- 
nephrin  is  present  in  TxrTTTriiyTJTro  P^^^  ^^  blood  but  is  necessary  to  life.) 


FOOD-SCIENCE —HUMAN  NUTRITION 


219 


EGG-REFRIGERATION  MODERN 

Preservation  of  Eggs  by  Refrigeration  in  Sterile  Air.  Lescarde  at 
the  Third  International  Congress  of  Refrigeration  described  a  method 
of  preserving  eggs  by  refrigeration  in  sterile  air.  The  eggs  are  placed 
on  end  in  horizontal  fillers  made  of  pasteboard  and  wood ;  then  these 
fillers  are  put  into  tin  cases  which  can  be  hermetically  sealed,  each  case 
having  a  capacity  of  six  fillers  containing  1 60  eggs.  The  covers  of  the 
filled  cases  are  then  soldered,  and  the  cases  are  deposited  in  an  autoclave 
(digester)  which  contains  twelve  cases  of  960  eggs  each.  A  vacuum  is 
then  made  in  the  autoclave,  and  a  duly  proportioned  mixture  of  two 
gases,  carbon  dioxid  and  nitrogen,  is  injected.  This  process  is  very 
simple,  because  carbon  dioxid  and  nitrogen,  in  the  form  of  compressed 
or  liquefied  gases,  are  on  the  market  now,  so  that  the  manipulation  of 
a  few  cocks  and  the  reading  of  a  gauge  suffice  to  produce  the  proper 
mixture.  The  process  in  the  autoclave  having  been  completed,  the  cases 
are  taken  out,  hermetically  sealed,  and  stored  in  cold-storage  rooms,  at 
a  temperature  varying  from  i  to  2°  C.  The  chief  advantages  accru- 
ing from  the  preservation  of  eggs  in  sterile  air  are  the  following: 
(i)  Waste,  of  such  importance  in  ordinary  cold  storage,  is  completely 
eliminated.  (2)  The  eggs  retain  a  perfectly  "  fresh  "  flavor,  and  conse- 
quently they  remain  excellent  for  table  use  even  after  ten  months'  storage ; 
they  also  retain  their  full  weight,  because  no  evaporation  is  possible  in 
the  tin  cases.  (3)  After  their  removal  from  the  cold-storage  rooms  the 
eggs  remain  in  perfect  condition  for  a  long  time  and  can  be  shipped 
long  distances  without  deterioration  ;  this  constitutes  a  signal  superiority 
over  the  ordinary  cold-storage  eggs,  which  deteriorate  rapidly  after  hav- 
ing been  taken  out  of  cold  storage.  The  reason  for  this  is  simple :  the 
antiseptic  air  which  surrounds  them  for  several  months,  together  with 
the  cold,  absolutely  destroy  all  bacteria  which  may  be  on  the  shell  of 
the  ^g'g  or  in  its  substance.  Deterioration  cannot  set  in  except  by  re- 
infection, which  is  produced  only  by  exposure  to  the  air  for  several 
weeks.  By  reason  of  the  above-mentioned  advantages,  eggs  preserved 
in  sterile  air  find  a  ready  market  and  command  much  higher  prices 
in  winter  than  ordinary  cold-storage  eggs,  or  even  the  so-called  "  fresh  " 
imported  eggs.  The  cost  of  treatment  and  preservation  amount  to 
15  francs  per  thousand. 

(Quoted  from  The  Journal  of  tke  Ainerica7i  Medical  A  ssociatio7i) 

220  FOOD  —  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


METHODS 


FISH-SHIPPING 


Shipping  Live  Fish  i7i  the  Frozen  State.  In  the  markets  of  Irkutsk, 
Siberia,  fish  are  displayed  for  sale  in  the  frozen  state  piled  up  like  cord- 
wood.  Fish  in  cold  storage  are  preserved  frozen  in  slabs  of  ice.  The 
latter  method  is  now  applied  in  the  shipment  of  live  fish.  The  method 
of  shipping  live  fish  in  water  is  not  feasible  on  account  of  the  expense. 
Pictet  discovered  that  fish  may  be  frozen  in  blocks  of  ice  without  being 
killed,  and  that  they  will  become  as  lively  as  ever  after  they  are  thawed 
out.  The  fish  in  a  large  amount  of  water  are  placed  in  a  closed  tank, 
and  oxygen  under  pressure  is  supplied.  The  greater  portion  of  the 
water  is  then  drawn  off.  The  fish  remain  in  good  condition  on  account 
of  the  abundant  supply  of  oxygen.  The  vessel  containing  the  fish  is 
then  placed  in  a  freezing  tank  and  the  fish  are  frozen  into  the  ice 
formed.  The  blocks  of  ice  containing  the  fish  can  then  be  piled  up  in 
the  ordinary  refrigerator  car.  On  arrival  at  their  destination  the  fish  are 
put  through  a  slow  thawing  process  lasting  ten  hours,  when  they  return 
to  their  normal  state  of  active  animation. 

(Quoted  from  Thejmirnalofthe  American  Medical  Association,  December  27,  1913) 


Perch  —  Skeleton  and  Circulation 
LIVING  —  INDUSTRY—  COMMERCE—  SCIENCE 


221 


HHfl 


CALCULATION  OF  DIETARIES 


Km 


Food-quantity  was  the  first  consideration  of  Diet-Science  when  it 
began  the  study  of  Human  Nutrition.  The  food-amounts  sanctioned 
as  dietary  standards  have  been  greatly  modified  of  late,  due  to  more 
comprehensive  experimentation  and  searching  investigation. 

The  variation  in  food-habits,  as  shown  by  investigation-records,  and  in 
nutritive  possibilities,  as  tested  by  experiment,  is  very  wide.  Yet  there 
are  diet-limits  that  it  is  not  physiologically  advisable  to  overstep,  if  indeed 
safe.  These  are  flexible,  because  they  change  with  climate,  occupation, 
diet-habit,  size,  sex,  age,  health.  Diet-standards  have  value  as  a  basis 
for  selecting  the  dietary.    For  Food- Variety,  see  p.  224. 

Diet  Chart  (For  man  at  moderate  work) 


Daily  Food-Need 

Calories 
I  yields  3000+ 


Grams 
High  standard  | 
Low  " 

The  lower  standard  is  the  more  recent  recommendation  of  diet-scientists. 

Dry  nutrients  —  P ^oz.  — F i\oz.  —  CH  lo^ oz.  (low)  ^^Protein 

P  z\  oz.  —  Fz\  oz.  —  CH  14^  oz.  (high)  iHIllFat 

Food-weight  of  food  as  purchased  is  3-4  lb.  per  capita  per  day.  t         ICarbohydrate 

Food- A  mounts  accordmg  to  Age^  p.  1 82  ;  Old- Age  Requirement^  p.  21 1  ; 
Food-Need  of  Childhood^  pp.  203-205;  Food-Utilizatiofi  a7id  Di- 
gestibility of  Foods ^  pp.  218-219. 

Metabolism  (the  process  of  actively  breaking  down  and  building  up  body- 
tissue)  is  increased  in  childhood  and  decreased  in  age.  The  protein- 
need  changes  during  growth  and  old  age,  but  not  with  work. 

Occupational  Energy-Requirement 


Men 

Calories 

PER  Day 

Women 

Tailor 

Bookbinder 

Shoemaker 

Metal-worker 

Painter 

Cabinet-maker 

Stone-cutter 

Wood-cutter 

2600-2800 
3000 
3100 
3400-3500 
3500-3600 
3500-3600 
4700-5200 
5500-6000 

2000 

2100-2300 

2100-2300 

2500-3200 

2900-3700 

Seamstress  (hand) 
Seamstress  (machine) 
Bookbinder 
Housemaid 
Washerwoman 

(From  Report  oi  Journal  of  the  American  Medical  Association  on  Respiration  Experiments 
of  Physiological  Institute  at  University  of  Helsingfors,  in  Finland.  The  carbon-dioxid 
output  of  these  persons  was  scientifically  determined  during  rest  and  during  work.  With 
this  as  a  basis  the  energy  needed  to  live  and  to  work  for  8  hours  a  day  was  calculated.) 


222 


FOOD ^  WHAT  IT  IS  AND  DOES 


h  I  rl  CALCULATION  OF  DIETARIES  h  I  fl 


Selection  of  Dietary  —  Choose  foods  preferred  by  those  to  be  fed. 
Introduce  new  foods  periodically ;  discontinue  if  digestion  is  disturbed. 

Note  especially  protein-foods  that  seem  digestible.    Use  these. 

Combine  with  "  incomplete  "  proteins  some  "  complete,"  p.  219. 

Consider  digestibility  (p.  218)  of  all  foods  used ;  also  ease  of  digestion. 

Use  together  foods  of  rapid  and  slow  utilization,  as  sugar  and  starch. 
Combine  Building — Energy  —  Digestion  Foods,  pp.  172-174. 

Acid-excess  is  undesirable  in  the  body.  To  prevent  this,  use  base-pro- 
ducers (potatoes,  apples,  raisins,  cantaloupes)  with  acid-producers 
(meats,  cereals,  prunes). 

Approximate  the  general  menus  on  pp.  194-195.    Use  foods  in  season. 
Prepare  food  freshly. 
It  is  not  advisable  to  attempt  to  calculate  the  amount  of  food  as  it  is 
used  daily.    The  sources  of  error  are  so  many  that  the  total  inaccuracy 
exceeds  that  of  a  larger  more  general  calculation,  such  as  is  suggested. 

Calculation  of  Dietary  —  To  estimate  food-quantity  for  a  family : 
Record  all  staple  foods  on  hand  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  a  week. 
Add  to  the  difference  the  foods  purchased  during  the  week,  if  used. 
Subtract  10%  (waste  in  raw  material  and  through  preparation).    Divide 

remainder  by  number  of  those  fed  (using  proportions  on  p.  182). 

This  gives  food-bulk  consumed  per  capita  per  zueek.    For  succeeding  week 

adjust  to  standard  if  not  in  accord. 

Note  weights  of  each  food  used.    Calculate  P — F —  CH  in  amount  of 

each  used.  (Food-Tables,  pp.  1 90-1 93.)  Add  these  for  all  foods  eaten. 

Compare  proportions  of  these  totals  with  standard.  If  necessary,  change 

foods  to  secure  similar  relation. 
This  gives  standard  diet-balance  of  food-constituents. 
Multiply  total  P  +  CH  (in  oz.)  by  125.  and  F  by  250.   The  sum  of  these 
is  a  close  approximation  of  the  calories  of  the  food  eaten. 
This  may  be  obtained  by  adding  calories  given  in  Food-Tables,  but  to 

do  so  makes  the  calculation  more  cumbersome. 
This  gives  the  Fuel  Value  or  Heat-Energy  of  the  dietary.    Distribution  by 
proportions  (p.  182)  gives  calories  per  person. 
Estimate  cost  of  the  adjusted  dietary  per  family  per  year.    Compare 
with  Income-Distribution,  p.  183.    Food-Cost,  p.  156. 
This  gives  food-expense  as  economic  factor  of  income. 

FOOD-SCIENCE  —  HUMAN  NUTRITION  223 


HJeISI  food  and  health  USsi 

.  Food-variety  has  long  been  considered  a  health-necessity. 
Diet  can  be  more  limited  in  variety  if  it  is  accurately  adjusted 
to  the  individual  food-need.  Foods  of  different  kinds  are 
never  fully  interchangeable  in  the  diet.  As  foods  differ  even 
in  their  most  minute  constituents,  so  do  they  in  nutritive 
effect.  Hence  the  necessity  of  considering  the  kinds  of  food 
and  the  palatability  as  well  as  the  quantity. 

Science  finds  that  peoples  in  extremes  of  climate,  which  re- 
strict the  food-supply,  live  upon  very  limited  food-combinations ; 
also  that  those  of  curtailed  resources  eat  only  a  few  food- 
combinations  of  simple  foods.  Some  of  the  latter  foods  of  for- 
eign origin  have  recently  been  introduced  into  American  diet. 

Diet-expansion  has  been  directly  effected  by  these  foods 
that  have  come  with  the  peoples  long  accustomed  to  their  use 
in  other  lands.  The  food-preparations  so  brought  are  often 
unique.  They  are  the  age-long  experience  resulting  from  the 
effort  to  make  palatable,  nutritious  diet  from  limited  food- 
resources.  Such  are  inexpensive  foods,  because  this  has  been 
the  need  of  the  workers  whose  resources  are  least  and  food- 
needs  greatest  of  any  social  group.  What  experience  has 
taught  them  can  be  learned  from  them,  though  their  food- 
needs  exceed  their  present  diet-possibilities. 


OLD  CHINESE  DISHES 


INDEX 


( Word  at  left  is  first 
Abbreviations 
Abbreviations 

C,  cupful 

C  (with  temperatures),  centigrade 

Cal,  calories 

C//,  carbohydrate 

COg,  carbon  dioxid 

F,  Fat 

F  (with  temperatures),  Fahrenheit 

gm.,  gram  (453-54  gms.  =  i  lb.) 

kg.,   kilo   or   kilogram    (i  kg.  = 
I  GOO  gms.  =  2.2  lb.) 

MM,  mineral  matter 

F,  protein 

T,  tablespoonful 

t,  teaspoonful 

JV,  water 
Acetic  acid  in  vinegar,  52 
Acid 

acetic,  51 

acid-intoxication,  219 

acid-producers,  223 

amino,  219 

boracic,  149 

citric,  51 

effect  on  digestion,  197 

fatty  acids  in  butter,  120 

food-acids,  39,  51 

fruit-acids,  38 

lactic  in  meat,  87,  117 

lactic  in  milk,  117 

malic,  8,  51 

organic,  in  fruits,  39,  44 

tartaric,  51 

vinegar,  51 
Adult-diet 

food-adjustment  to  work,  182 

food-need  (kinds,  times),  181 
Adulteration 

canned  goods,  138 

cheese,  115 

chemicals  in,  69,  150 

chocolate,  54 

coffee,  57,  138 

cream,  115 

dangers  of,  138 


on  page  ;  at  rights  last) 

Animal 
Adulteration 

definition  of,  138 

food,  138 

fraud  in  jams,  jellies,  138 

meat,  149 

milk,  113 

spices,  54 

vinegar,  51 
Advance,  human,  128 
Advancement  of  life,  127—129 
Advertisement,  139,  140 
Air 

leavening,  29 

need,  166 

purity,  quality,  166 

relation  to 
food-cycle,  74 
food-production,  73 
food-utilization,  66,  166,  201 

supply,  69 
Albumen,  94 

lact-albumin,  112 
Alcohol 

fermentation,  28,  51 

wood-alcohol,  150 
Allspice,  52 
Almonds,  47,  193 
Alum,  residue,  33 
Anabolism,  200 
Animal 

Animal  Life  and  Foods,  81 

age-range,  85 

availability  for  food,  83 

cattle  on  farms  {map),  123 

characteristics  as  food,  85 

condition  for  food,  87 

constituents  in  food,  82 

cows  on  farms  {map),  125 

cuts,  91 

lamb,  pork,  veal,  82 
muscle,  skeleton,  90 

diagrams  and  cuts,  90-93 

digestibility  of,  83,  218 
order  of  {table),  126 

digestion  time  {table),  128 


225 


ANIMAL 

Animal 

domestication,  128 

effects  of  living,  85 

expense,  83 

farm,  123 

fibers  {drazuing),  85 

flavor,  85 

food  of,  80,  83,  85 

food-cycle,  74 

food-production,  72,  187 

foods,  122 

fowls  on  farms,  125 

health,  82 

life-needs,  84 

maps,  122-125 

muscles  {d7'awing),  90 

parts  {summary),  85 

products,  128 

value  of  {table),  186-187 

waste,  83 

work  {map),  123 
Ants,  136 
Apples 

acetic  fermentation,  51 

acids,  51 

composition,  38-39,  193 

digestibility,  44 

dried,  43 

green,  14,  39,  41 

jams,  jelly,  43 

laxative  food,  44 

ripeness,  14 

vinegar,  51 

wild,  40 
Apricots,  43,  44 
Architecture,  129 
Arsenic,  150 
Ash,  defined,  6 

in  fruits,  43 
Asparagus 

bleached,  150 

canned,  154 

characteristics,  9 

composition,  9 

cooking,  13 
Astringent,  57 
Atmosphere 

in  food-cycle,  74 


BAKING-POWDER 


Atmosphere 
purification,  68 
wind-effects,  68 

Bacon,  87 
Bacteria 

activity,  70,  74,  176 

in  body-tissues,  116 

in  butter  ripening,  120 

in  food,  137 

in  food-decomposition,  149 

in  food-deterioration,  151 

in  intestines,  69 

in  milk,  70 

in  refrigeration,  153 

in  refuse,  137 

in  soil,  69 
bread  unwrapped  {table),  28,  31 
changes  in  milk,  116 
conditions  of  growth,  1 1 
dangers,  69 

destruction  in  cooking,  12 
destructive,  152 
development  of,  7 1 
disease  from,  70,  152 
disease  producing,  116 
effect  of  he'at  on,  55 
effect  of  sterilization,  152 
fission,  71 
food  of,  70,  154 
function  in 

food-cycle,  74 

food-production,  73 
illustrations  of 

lactic  acid,  117 

life  of,  69 

multiplying,  70-71 

multiplying  in  milk,  70,  117 

nitrogen-carriers,  4 
pathogenic,  153 
putrefactive,  55,  152-153 
reproduction,  70-71 
spores,  71 
with  yeast,  30 
Baking-Powder 

action  as  leaven,  32 
alum,  33 
characteristics,  22 


226 


BAKING-POWDER 

rTrj                            BORAcic 

Baking-Powder 

Beef 

composition,  32 

use  in  diet,  94,  126 

cream  of  tartar,  33 

Beets 

filler,  32 

characteristics,  9 

home-made,  34 

composition,  6,  193 

method  of  using,  34 

refuse  in  {table),  8 

phosphate,  33 

Benzoate  of  soda,  137 

residues,  33 

as  preservative,  149 

starch  in,  32 

Berries 

use,  34 

digestibility,  44 

Bananas 

laxative  food,  45 

composition,  193 

Beverages 

digestibility,  44 

adulteration,  57 

laxative  food,  45 

cocoa,  56-57 

nutrients,  38-39 

coffee,  56-57 

ripening,  155 

comparison  of,  63 

Barley 

composition,  57 

acreage  {map),  19 

extractives  in,  55 

composition  {table),  20 

lemonade,  56 

gluten  in,  22 

nutriment  in,  63 

illustration  of,  20 

origin  of,  56 

malt,  52 

preparation,  57 

starch  in,  76 

summary,  63 

water,  113,  207 

tea,  56-57 

yield  {table),  19 

use  in  diet,  56 

Baskets,  128 

value  in  diet,  56 

Bass,  103 

wines,  56 

Beans 

Biscuit,  36 

characteristics,  9 

Blackberries 

composition,  6,  192 

acid  in,  51 

leguminous,  4 

composition,  38 

lima,  9 

Bleaching  food,  1 50 

plant-part,  3 

Bluefish,  102-103 

refuse  in  {table),  8 

Body  as  chemical  laboratory,  216 

string,  9,  192 

Body-activity 

Beef 

food-need  for,  175 

composition  of,  86,  190 

in  childhood,  205 

cost  of,  88 

Body-composition 

cjUs 

constituents,  173 

described,  88 

waste,  217 

illustrated,  82,  ^Z,  90-93,  99 

water,  208 

quality  of,  88 

Body  processes 

muscles  {diagram),  90 

delicacy  of,  219 

quarters 

in  childhood,  202-205 

fore,  88 

nutritive  effect,  218 

hind,  80 

working,  116 

side  {diagram),  91 

Bolting,  24 

skeleton  {diagram),  90 

Boracic  acid,  149 

227 


BORAX 

Borax,  149 

Bran,  composition,  24 

protein,  salts  in,  24 

use,  143 
Brazil  nuts,  47,  193 
Bread 

baking,  27-28 

care,  28 

characteristics,  22 

childhood,  28 

comparison  with  flours,  27 

composition  of   different  {table)^ 

27»  37 

constituents,  27 

crust,  28 

diet  factor,  22 

flat,  illustration  after  34 

flour-quality,  35 

kinds  {table),  27-28,  36 

leavened,  27 

making,  28 

souring,  28 

staple  food,  25 

substitutes,  37 

unleavened,  35 

unwrapped,  28 

use  in  diet,  22 

use  in  France,  159 

wrapped,  28 

yeast  in  making,  30 
Breakfast 

colonial  days,  179 

food-quantity,  181 

foods  for,  181 

menus,  194 

table,  illustration  after  194 
Brisket,  composition,  88 

location,  91 

quality,  88 
Broilers,  100 
Buckwheat 

acreage  [table),  19 

gluten  in,  22 

grinding  {ilhistration),  23 

yield  {table),  19 
Building,  origin,  128 
Building  food,  72 

excess,  171 


m 


CARBOHYDRATES 


Building  food 

meat  as,  97 

milk  as,  1 1 1 

snmma7y,  126 
Butter 

adulteration,  120 

bacteria  in  making,  120 

bread  with,  22,  27 

butterine,  120 

characteristics,  120 

composition,  114,  191 

digestibility,  120 

fat  in,  115 

flavor,  120 

gro7vth  food,  120 

oleomargarine,  120 

renovated,  120 

ripening,  120 

standard,  114 

substitutes,  120 

test,  119 
Butterine,  120 
Buttermilk,  114 
Butternuts,  47 

Cabbage,  composition,  6,  193 

nutrients,  8 

plant-part,  3 

refuse  in  {table),  8 
Caffeine  in  coffee,  55,  63 
Cake,  composition,  23,  192 

use  in  diet,  37 
Calcium  in  food,  73,  222 
Calculation  of  dietaries,  223 
Calories,  {chaii),  222 

defined,  188 

existence-requirement,  200 

in  common  foods  {table),  190-193 

in  daily  diet,  200,  222 

in  diet-standards,  201,  222 
Cannibalism,  127-128 
Capon,  100 
Carbohydrates 

constitution,  72 

digestibility  {table),  196 

food-constituent,  171 

functions  of,  72 

kinds  of,  4,  72 


228 


CARBOHYDRATES 

Carbohydrates 

milk,  III,  113 

oysters,  102 
Carbon  in  food-cycle,  74 
Carbon  dioxid  in 

air,  55,  7i 

baking-powder,  32 

beverages,  63 

fermentation,  28,  31 
vinegar,  51 
yeast,  28 

food  elements,  72 

food  of  plants,  66 

respiration  of  plants,  55,  66 
Carrots,  composition,  6,  193 

nutrients,  9 

refuse,  8 
Carving  (see  atts) 

chicken  {diag7'ani)^  99 

fish  {diagram)^  99 

fowl  {diagram)^  99 

ham  {diagram)^  88 

lamb-leg  {diagram)^  88 

lamb-shoulder  {diagram)^  99 

meat  {diagram)^  89 

roasts  {diagra7?i)^  93 
Casein,  112 
Cassia,  52 

Cattle  on  farms  {map)^  123 
Cauliflower,  3 
Cayenne,  52 
Celery,  characteristics,  9 

composition,  6,  193 

dangers,  7 

plant-part,  3 

refuse,  8 

use  in  diet,  5 
Cells  (see  Diagrams) 
Cellulose,  4 

cell-structure  {illustrated)^  75 

cooking  of,  12 

function  in  body,  5,  72 

function  in  food-cycle,  74 

in  grains,  24 

in  plant-structure,  75 

in  vegetables,  72 

stimulation  of,  5 

woody  fiber,  5,  72 


CHEMICALS 


Cellulose 

young,  4,  10 
Cereals 

acreage  {map)^  19 

coffee,  59,  63 

composition  {table),  20,  192 

cooking  {table),  21 

gruels,  21,  207 

illustrations  of,  20-21 

importance  of,  16 

in  diet,  24 

kinds,  22 

porridge,  21 

preparation  of,  21,  177 

yield  {table),  19 
Ceres  {illustration),  77  • 

Charts  (see  Diagrams) 

diet,  daily,  222 

foods,  supplementary,  189 

heat  value  of  foods,  188 

population-distribution,  184 
Cheese 

adulteration,  121 

bacteria  in  making,  121 

Cheddar,  114,  121 

composition  {table),  19,  114,  121 

cottage,  121 

cream,  114 

digestibility,  121 

Edam,  121 

fat  in,  119 

filled,  121 

industry,  121 

kinds,  114 

mold  in,  121 

Neufchatel,  121 

Parmesan,  121 

protein  in,  119 

Roquefort,  121 

salts,  1 19 

Stilton,  121 
Chemical  changes  in  food-utilization, 

200,  219 
Chemicals 

adulteration,  138,  150 

bleaching  food,  150 

coloring  food,  1 50 

dyes  in  food,  150 


229 


CHEMICALS                                          1 

rTFj                                           COMMERCE 

Chemicals 

Chuck 

food,  143 

location,  91 

food-elements,  j^)^  188 

quality,  88 

preservatives,  149,  152 

Cider,  41 

residues,  155 

Cinnamon,  52 

Chestnuts,  47 

Citron,  44 

Chicken 

Clams,  102-103 

carving  {illustrated)^  99 

Cleanliness,  effect  on 

composition,  103,  191 

food,  136,  152 

kinds,  100 

health,  132 

milk-fed,  100 

markets,  136 

parts,  100 

Clothing,  183 

quality-test^  100 

Cloves,  52 

young  {ilhcstration),  105 

Coal-tar  products,  1 50 

Child-Diet,  202-205 

Cocoa 

age-combinations,  204 

beans  {illustration),  61 

food-intoxication,  205 

beverage,  60 

growth-food^  203,  205,  219 

branch  of  tree,  61 

mineral  matter  in,  205,  219 

butter,  61 

quantity-standards  {table),  202 

composition,  62-63 

restrictions,  205 

digestibility,  62 

significance,  204 

fat  in,  61 

Child-Food 

growth  of,  60 

eggs  as,  109,  203-204 

hulls,  61 

food-adjustment,  168,  203-205 

nibs,  61 

impure  milk,  116 

nutrients,  62-63 

milk,  III 

plant-part,  3 

milk  purity,  no 

varieties,  62 

Childhood 

Coconut,  47 

body-development,  202 

Cod,  loi,  103,  191 

digestive  limitations,  202,  205 

Coffee 

food-quantities,  202 

adulteration,  56,  59,  150 

growth  in,  202,  205 

bean  {illustration),  59 

growth-diet,  209 

caffeine,  55,  63 

growth-foods,  203,  219 

comparison  with  tea,  57 

heat-need,  203 

composition,  57,  63 

kinds  of  food,  203 

cultivation,  59 

nutrients  needed,  203 

extractives,  55 

treatment  of,  209 

flavor,  57 

Chlorophyll 

preparation  as  beverage,  57 

function,  66 

production,  59 

in  lettuce,  8 

substitutes,  59 

in  vegetable  cell,  75 

tannin  in,  57 

Chocolate,  61 

test,  59 

adulteration,  54 

Cold  storage,  153 

composition,  62 

Commerce 

manufacture,  61 

dangers,  10,  138 

use,  62 

development,  131 

230 


Commissions,  115,  154 

Contents 

Community 

Animal  Life  and  Foods,  81 

interests,  134 

Food- Science  —  Nutrition ,  1 60 

need  of  commissions,  154 

Gene7'al,  v 

Composition  of 

Living  —  Industry  —  Commerce^ 

animal  foods  [table),  190-191 

126 

apples  {table),  39 

Plajit  Life  and  Foods,  vii 

baking  powders,  32-33 

Convalescence,  206 

beverages  [table),  63 

diet  in,  207 

breads  [table),  37,  192 

Cooking,  13 

butter  [table),  114,  191 

baked  food,  13 

cake  [table),  37,  192 

cereal  [table),  21 

cereals  [table),  20,  192 

effect,  on  bacteria,  137,  155 

cheese  [table),  114,  191 

on  composition  of  food,  21,  139 

cocoa  [table),  63 

on  digestibility  of  food,  133, 197 

coffee  [table),  63 

on  food,  8,  12-13,  162 

crackers  [table),  37,  192 

on  meat,  96-97 

cream  [table),  114,  191 

on  water,  8,  12 

daily  diet  (^y^^;^),  181,  200-201,  222 

eggs,  109 

eggs  [table),  108,  191 

general  changes,  13,  133 

fish  [table),  loi,  103,  191 

potato,  8 

flours  [table),  26,  192 

salt  in,  1 2 

foods,  common  [table),  190-193 

steam  in,  13 

•animal  [table),  1 90-1 91 

vegetables,  12 

human  [table),  20,  46 

water  in,  12 

vegetable  [table),  192-193 

Corn 

fruits,  fresh  [table),  38,  193 

acreage  [map),  18 

fruits,  dried  [table),  43,  193 

bread,  36 

jams,  jellies  [table),  43 

care,  11 

milk  [table)^  iii,  191 

characteristics,  9 

milk  products  [table),  114,  191 

composition,  192 

nuts  [table),  47,  193 

crops  [table),  yj 

population  of  U.S.A.  [table),  185 

dangers,  208,  219 

protein  foods  [table),  103 

ear  [illustrated),  21 

vanilla,  53 

fat  in,  20-2 1 

vegetable  [table),  192-193 

gluten  in,  22 

green,  8 

growth  of,  25 

legumes,  9 

protein  in,  219 

starchy,  9 

refuse  in  [table),  8 

Concentrated  foods 

starch  in  [table),  76 

use  in  body,  176 

yield  in  [table),  19 

Condiments,  growth,  54 

Corn  meal 

origin,  10 

composition  of,  20,  192 

use,  52,  55 

cooking,  21 

Confections,  adulteration  of,  54 

use,  21 

Constituents  (see  Food) 

Cost  of 

Constitution,  delicate,  209 

foods  [table),  156 

inferior,  208 

living  [table),  183 

231 


COST 


1» 


DIAGRAMS 


Cost  of  living  commodities  {table), 

Cottonseed-oil,  50 

production  of  (map),  49 
Cows  on  farms  {map),  125 
Crab-apple,  43 
Crabs,  102-103 
Crackers,  23 

varieties  {table),  37,  192 
Cranberries,  38 
Cream,  113,  191 
adulteration,  115 
composition  {table),  114 
digestibility,  115 
fat  in,  114 
separation,  114 
Cream  of  tartar,  33 
Crops 

production,  U.S.A.  {map),  17 
production  {table),  158,  186-187 
value  of  {table),  19,78, 158, 186-187 
world  yields  {table),  77 
Cucumbers 

composition  {table),  6,  193 
nutrients  {table),  8 
refuse  {table),  8 
Currants,  acid  in,  51 
composition  {table),  43 
digestibility  {table),  44 
Custom,  diet,  169 

food,  168 
Cuts     of     Meat,     illustrated     (see 
Diagrams) 
beef  (animal),  90,  91 
cuts,  91 
muscles,  90 
quarters,  93 
roasts,  93 
side,  91 
bones,  93 
muscles,  93 
sirloin  cutting,  92 
skeleton,  90 
steaks,  92 
mutton  (lamb),  82 
chops,  89 
leg,  88 
shoulder,  99 


17> 


Cuts  of  Meat 

pork  (animal),  88 
ham,  88 

veal  (animal),  82 
Cycle  of  Nature 

advancement  of  life, 

diagra??ts,  74 

food-cycle,  74  ' 

living,  72 


Daily  Diet 

adjustment  to  age,  181 
to  growth,  181 

amounts,  188,  200-201,  211,  222 

composition  of,  181 

comprehensively,  181 

distribution  of  food,  181 

food-amounts,  188-189 

menus  for,  194-195 
Dairy  products  {table),  114,  191 
Dates,  43,  193 

Death,  causes  of  {table),  210 
Decomposition 

bacteria  in,  153 

ferments  in,  155 

food,  T54 

freezing  in,  1 53 

fruit,  41 

plant,  II 

refrigeration,  153 

vegetable,  13 
Development  of 

body,  168,  212 

digestive  agencies,  202 

food,  13 

industry,  139 
need,  182 
products,  139 
supply,  134 

human  food,  162 

human  life,  1 26-131 

organism,  71 

plant,  20 

seed,  134 

vegetable  cells  {ilhistrated),  75 

yeast  plant,  30-31 
Diagrams  (see  Carving,  Cuts,  Ckai'ts, 
Drawings,  Maps) 


232 


DIAGRAMS                                       ;  r 

m    ]                                  DIGESTIBILITY 

Diag7'aniSy 

Diet,  foreign 

cells 

France,  159 

bacteria 

workers,  169 

fission,  ii6 

formation  of,  80 

multiplying  in  milk,  117 

fresh,  5 

fat-globules,  98 

habits,  213 

in  milk,  114 

illness,  206-207 

pea-structure,  75 

laxative,  45,  174 

plant-structure,  75 

life-needs  in,  178 

potato-cross-section,  75 

light,  207 

starch,  75 

liquid,  207 

protein-granules,  75 

mixed,  168-169 

starch-grain,  75 

nuts  in,  46 

vegetable,  75 

obesity,  211 

yeast,  magnified,  31 

old  age,  211 

cell-structure,  75 

quantities,  181,  188,  200-201 

walls,  75 

science  in,  168,  170 

cellulose,  75 

seasonal,  180 

chlorophyll,  75 

sensible,  213 

crop-distribution,  78-79 

standards  {table),  159,  202-205 

food-cycle,  74 

supplementary  foods  in  {chart),  6, 

land-distribution,  78 

189,  197 

muscle-fibers,  98 

workers',  169,  201,  222,  224 

perch,  circulation,  221 

youth,  212 

skeleton,  221 

Dietary 

Diet  (see  Daily  Diet) 

calculation,  222-223 

accessories,  46 

defined,  195 

adjustments,  179 

French,  159 

adult,  213 

standards,  182,  188,  200-201,  202- 

changes  in,  169,  179 

205,  211,  212,  222 

charts  222 

Digestibility 

child,  204-205 

aids,  198 

combinations,  204 

animal  foods,  126 

exclusions,  205 

order  of,  218 

condiments  in,  55 

butter,  120 

constituents,  189 

carbohydrates,  196 

convalescent,  207 

cheese,  126 

custom,  168-169 

effect  of  cooking,  162 

daily  amounts,  181,  188,  200-201 

effect  of  food  characteristics,  197 

defined,  163 

eggs,  109 

effect  on  nutrition,  171 

fat  in  foods,  196 

expansion,  224 

foods  {table),  196 

experts,  203 

nutrients  {table),  196 

flour-mixtures  in,  23,  37 

milk,  112,  115 

food-combination  in,  163 

predigested  foods,  177 

food-constituents  in,  163 

prepared  foods,  177 

foreign,  214,  224 

protein,  196 

different  lands,  169 

starch,  196 

233 


DIGESTION 

Digestion 

acids  in,  197 

bread,  22 

childhood,  202 

dangers,  14,  216-217 

diet-factors  in,  174 

effect  of  acids  in,  197 

effect  of  cooking,  13 

effect  of  fermentation,  197 

effect  of  food-combination,  197 

effect  of  food-properties,  197 

effect  of  food-structure,  197 

effect  of  food-texture,  197 

effect  of  mastication,  197 

effect  of  palatabiHty,  197,  218 

effect  of  seasoning,  198 

effect  of  time,  181 

effect  of  water,  197 

foods,  166,  171 

milk,  112 

needs  in,  166 

activity,  air,  166-167,  200-201 
exercise,  rest,  209,  216-217 

regulation  of,  217 

significance  of,  217 

stimulation  of,  12 
by  cellulose,  176 
by  laxative  foods,  174 
by  non-nutrients,  176 
by  spices,  52 

time  of  {table),  217 
Digestion  foods,  174 
Digestive  tract,  168,  217 

activity  of,  168,  217 

overburdening,  173 

overworking,  173 
Dinner 

food-quantity,  181 

foods  for,  181 

menu-suggestions,  194 
Disease 

causes  of,  208 

conditions  in,  206 

dangers,  208,  216 

diet  in,  207,  209 

exposure  to,  136 

germs  in  (see  bacteria),  69,  137 

protection,  208 


EGG 


Disease, 

resistance,  208 
vegetables,  carriers  of,  14 
water,  carriers  of,  137 
Drazmiigs  (see  Diagravis) 
bacteria 

disease-producing,  116 

in  milk,  117 
barley,  20 
cocoa-beans,  61 

branch,  60 
coffee-beans,  59 
corn-ear,  21 
crab,  127 
fruits,  44-45 
hop,  31 

implements,  127 
maize,  21 
millet,  127 
oats,  20 

grain,  25 
rice,  20 
rye,  20 
spirogyra,  75 
starch-grains  (barley,  corn,  oats, 

pea,  rice,  wheat),  76 
tea-leaves,  58 
tubercles  on  legumes,  4 
wheat,  25 

grain  covered,  24 

grain  uncovered,  24 
yeast  developing,  30 
Ducks,  100 
Ductless  glands 

effect  on  growth,  208 
effect  on  nutrition,  211 
Dyes  in  food,  150 

Edam  cheese,  129 
Eels,  102-103 
Egg 

broken  eggs,  106 

characteristics,  104 

composition  of,  103,  108,  191 

cooking  of,  109 

digestibility  of,  109 

dried,  106 

gelatin  substitute  for,  106 


234 


EGG 


Egg 

growth-food^  203,  212,  219 

leaven,  34 

nutrients,  108 

preservation.,  106,  220 

production,  107 

quality,  107 

refrigeration,  220 

shell,  108 

significance,  100 

test.,  104 

use  in  diet,  107,  109 

white,  104,  108 

yolk,  104,  108 
Egg-plant,  8 
Endurance,  208 
Energy  in 

body-activity,  173 

carbohydrates,  176 

fat,  173 

food-energy,  201 

foods,  173 

occupational  requirement  {table)., 
222 

starch,  173 

sugar,  173 

vegetables,  9 
Environment 

effects  of,  128 

expansion  of,  129 

health-need,  135 

sanitary,  135 
Enzyme  in  pineapple,  197 
Evolution  of 

civilization,  129 

food,  126-129 
Exercise,  209 

Existence,  food-need,  200      '       ' 
Experience,  1  29 
Exploration,  129 
Extractives  in 

beverages,  55,  57 

meats,  94 

Factory 

effect  on  food,  133 
food-dangers,  137 
refuse,  136 


FISH 


Farm  animals  {maps),  123 

animals  on  farms  {table),  186 
Fat 

body,  3,  173 

cocoa,  61 

constitution,  72 

digestibility,  196 

food-constituent,  171,  175 

food-cycle  function,  74 

functions  of,  3,  72,  175 

globules  {illustrated),  98 
in  milk  {illustrated),  114 

in  fish,  loi,  103 

in  human  food  {table),  50 

in  milk,  113 

in  plant  food,  26 
Fatigue,  216 
Ferment 

acetic  acid,  51 

in  foods,  177 

lactic  acid,  117 

natural,  142 

ptyalin,  202 

refrigeration,  153 

ripening  fruit,  155 

unorganized,  137,  151,  153 
Fermentation 

acetic  acid,  51 

acid,  203 

bread-making,  28 

cocoa-manufacture,  61 

food,  5 

fruit-juice,  41 

glucose,  55 

grape,  56 

intestinal,  5,  197 

milk,  117,  119 

storage,  137 
Fiber 

animal,  85 

muscle  {illustrated),  98 

vegetable,  5,  12,  133,  173,  174 
Figs,  43,  193 
Filberts,  47,  193 
Filler,  baking-powder,  32 
Fire,  127 
Fish,  canned,  102 

carving  {diagrams),  99 


23S 


FISH 

Fish 

comparison  {table)^  103 

composition  {table),  loi,  191 

cooking,  loi 

cost,  102-103 

digestibility,  loi,  218 

food,  127 

fresh  water,  loi 

function  in  diet,  102 

nutrients  in,  loi 

preservation,  loi 

protein,  loi 

sea,  loi 

season  {table),  103 

shell,  102 

shipping,  221 

test  of  quality,  loi 
Fission  {illustrated),  71 
Flank,  location,  91 

quality,  88 
Flavorings,  53 

artificial,  53 

chocolate,  53 

natural,  53 

tonka  bean,  53 

use,  54 

vanilla,  53 
Flavors,  effect  of  cooking,  12,  85,  c 

fruits,  39 
Flies,  136 
Flounder,  103 
Flour 

bread,  25-26,  35 

care,  25 

comparative  {table),  26,  27,  192 

composition  {table),  20 

description,  25 

entire  wheat,  20,  25 

graham,  25 

macaroni,  25-26 

milling,  24 

pastry,  25-26,  35 

patent,  35 

protein  in,  26 

starch  in,  26 

test  of,  35 

white,  25 

whole  wheat,  35 


Tm  J  FOOD 

Flour-mixtures 

composition  of  bread,  cake,  crack- 
ers, 37 
described,  23 
diet  value,  26 
different  breads,  36 
leavening,  29 

types    (simpler,  'sweetened,    en- 
riched), 37 
Flower,  3 
Food 

amounts,  159,  1 81-182,  188,  200, 

222 
animal  {map),  122 
bulk,  7 
buying,  146 
characteristics,  197 
charts 

food-constituents,  189 

heat  value,  188 
clean,  136 
coloring,  138 

combination,  effect  on  nutrition, 
163,  168-170,  219 

need  of,  163 
composition  {table),  190-193 
concentrated,  108 
consumption,  158-159 
cost 

comparative  {table),  156 

relative  to  wage  {table),  156 

worker's  family  {table),  156 
cycle,  74 
dangers,  7,  14,  136-137,  143-144 

summary,  155 
deterioration,  10,  151,  154 
diet-habits,  159 

domestic  products,  158 

foreign,  158 

French,  159 

importations  for  {table),  158   ~ 
dressings,  198 
elements,  73 

energy  (work-need),  201,  222 
excess,  168 
flavors,  8,  198 
foreign,  10,  214-215 
freshness,  5 


236 


FOOD 

Food 

functions,  3,  i8o 
germ-free,  69 
habits,  need  of,  161 

regulated,  170 
heat  (body-need),  200 
industry,  144 
in  general,  66 
inspection,  142-143,  154 
knowledge,  effect  on 

buying,  139 

health,  139 

need  of,  161 

protection,  154 

selection,  195 

significance,  141 
labels,  139 
laws,  need  of,  143 

purpose  of,  138-139 
manufacture,  140 

artificial  foods,  148 

canned,  144 

concealed,  145 

dangers,  143-144 

purpose,  145 
maturity,  14 
modification,  143 
needs  in  general,  164 
practices,  133 
preparation,  131,  133 
production,  132 
purity,  137,  140,  150 
quality,  summary^  153 
quantity,  200,  222-223 

calculation,  223 

diet  chart,  222 

energy  requirement,  222 

protein-need,  211 

summary y  165,  200,  222 
Food-composition 
comprehensively,  188 
fuel  value,  188 
tables,  190-193 
Food-constituents,  165,  171 
Foods 

animal,  85 
artificial,  148 
building,  3,  172 


TiTj  FRUIT 

Foods 

carbohydrate,  3,  4,  175 

composition  of  [table),  190-193 

concentrated,  20,  176 

digestibility  of,  15,  218 

digestion,  174 

energy,  173 

fat,  175 

foreign,  16,  214-215 

fresh,  38 

growth,  202-203,  219 

human,  20,  190-193 

kinds  of,  1-2,  190-193 

laxative,  45,  115,  174 

predigested,  177 

protective,  175 

work,  222,  224 
Foreign-born  in  U.S.A.  {table),  185 
Foreign  diets,  169 
Foreign  exchange,  214 
Foreign  expansion  of  diet,  224 
Foreign  foods,  16,  214 

of  nations,  215 
Foreign   meat-consumption    [table), 

215 
Foreign  products  [table),  158 
Foreign  residents  in  U.S.A.  [table), 

214 
Formaldehyde,  149 
Fowls,  carving  [diagram),  99 

on  farms,  125 
Freezing 

fish,  10,  221 

food,  142 

preservation,  152 
refreezing,  152 
Fruit 

acids,  51 

canned,  42 

composition  [table),  38-39 

congealing,  44 

crops  [table,  map),  48-49 

cultivation,  40 

decomposition,  40 

desiccated,  42 

digestibility,  44 

drying,  41,  43 

fermented,  42 


237 


FRUIT 

Fruit 

flavor,  39 

food,  38-39 
origin,  137 

function,  45,  180 

green,  39,  41 

heat-energy,  44 

jams  {table),  42 

jellies  {table),  43 

juices,  42,  51,  56 

laxative,  45 

mineral  matter,  39 

nature-significance,  38 

plant-part,  3,  10 

preparations,  42-43 

preservation,  40-42 

ripeness,  39 

ripening  in  storage,  155 

season,  40 

seedless,  40 

stored,  42 

unripe,  44 
Fuel  food,  188,  200 
Fuel  value  of, 

food,  188 

foods  {table)  y  190-193 
Functions  of  organisms,  72 
Fungus,  15 

cream-production,  121 

mother  of  vinegar,  51 

Geese,  100 
Gelatin 

adulterant,  115,  138 

egg-substitute,  106 

fish-substitute,  loi 

function,  94,  175 

meat,  94 
Germ 

changes  due  to,  29 
in  oysters,  102 
in  starchy  food,  155 

growth,  13 

life,  137 
Ginger,  52 
Glucose 

availability,  55,  64 

fermentation,  55 


\P. 


GROWTH 


Glucose 

in  fruit-preserving,  44 

on  rice,  137 

sugar-substitute,  138 

vinegar,  51 
Gluten,  21 

bread,  27 

characteristics,  22 

cooking,  22 

examination,  22 

flour,  26 

wheat,  24 
Grain  (see  Cereals),  22-23 

changes  in,  143 

charts,  78-79 

composition 
compared,  13 
of  dried,  20 

constituents  {illustrated),  25 

diet,  169 

distribution  {map),  18 

grinding,  24 
illnstrated,  23 

growth,  17 

home  of  {map),  17 

importance  of,  16 

seeds,  20 

starch,  76 
Grapes,  acid  in,  51 

composition,  38 

digestibility,  44 

jams,  jelly,  43 

laxative  food,  45 
Green  vegetables 

care,  1 1 

function,  174 
Growth 

animal,  83-84 

bacteria,  11,  13,  69 

body,  129,  132,  168-169 

child,  202 

civilization,  129 

diet,  209 

food,  104,  109,  120 

food-need  in,  202-203 

food-production 

industry,  science,  131,  133 
storage,  transportation,  131 


23B 


GROWTH 

Growth 

gland-health  in,  208 
humanity,  127 
impulse,  203,  209,  212 
knowledge,  134 
language,  129 
mold,  II 
organism,  71 
plant,  II,  20 

cocoa,  60 

coffee,  59 

grain,  17,  25 

vanilla,  53 

yeast,  28,  50 
science,  131,  133 
Gruel,  21 

Habits  of  health,  135 
Haddock,  loi,  103 
Halibut,  loi,  103 
Ham,  87 

cuts,  88 
Health 

aids  to,  135 

culture,  135 

dangers,  136 

endurance,  208 

food  in,  224 

food-supply,  137 

human,  135,  161 

mature,  208 
Heat 

basal  production,  200 

body,  3 

need  of,  200 

effect  on 

beverages,  57 
flavorings,  198 
ripening  fruit,  155 

energy,  200-201 

existence  requirement,  200 

food-oxidation,  188 

foods,  173 

flour-mixtures,  26 
Hickory  nuts,  47 
Hominy,  16,  21 
Hop  {illustrated),  31 
Horses  on  farms  {map)j  123 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


Huckleberries,  38 

jelly,  43 
Human  body,  165-167 
activity,  164-167,  176 
composition,  165 
development,  202 
food-adjustment,  168 
concentration,  176 
regulation,  170 
waste,  170 
need  for 

growth,  living,  work,  164 
heat,  200 
repair,  164 
rest,  167 
water,  167 
waste,  217 
Human  food,  10,  13,  161,  163 
Human  health,  135 
Human  living,  1 31-132,  162 
Human  nutrition,  161 
Humanity 
consumer,  80 
development,  1 26-131 
sustenance,  134 
worker,  jt^,  80 
Hydrogen,  73 

peroxid  preservative,  149 
Hygiene 
food,  224 
habits,  135 
Hygeia  {illustration),  224 

Ice,  purity  of,  153 
Ice-cream  dangers,  153 
Illustrations  (see  Charts,  Cuts,  Dia- 
grams, Drawings,  Maps) 

Ceres,  77 

Chickens,  104-105 

Chinese  dishes,  after  224 

Colonial  fireplace,  before  i 

Crab,  127 

Dining-room,  after  198 

Grinding  buckwheat,  23 

Hygeia,  224 

Italian  kitchen,  after  134 

Italian  well-head,  after  166 

Millet,  127 


239 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


Illustrations 

Norwegian     flat     bread-making, 
after  34 

Primitive  cooking,  126 

Primitive  implements,  127 

Primitive  wood-carrying,  126 

Table-laying,  after  194 

Tea-tray,  after  206 

Trees      (banana,      cocoa,      date, 
papaw),  vi 
Immunity 

acquired,  natural,  208 
Implements  {illustrated)^  127 

development,  128 
Importations 

food,  158 

geographically,  157 

living-commodities,  157 
Income 

distribution,  183 

food-factor,  183 
Intelligence,  129 
Invasion,  128 
Invention 

development,  129 

origin,  127-128 

Jams 

composition,  43 

in  diet,  42-43 

preparation,  42 
Jellies,  composition,  43 

in  diet,  41-42 

preparation,  42 

Katabolism,  200 
Koumiss,  119 

Lactic  acid  in 

meat,  87 

milk,  117 
Lamb,  composition,  86 

cuts  {illustrated)^  82 
Language,  development,  129 
Lard 

in  bread,  27 

leaf,  87 

nutrients,  ^'j 


LIVING 


Laxative  foods,  45,  115 
Lead  in  food,  1 50 
Leavens 

artificial,  32 

baking-powder,  32-34 
home-made,  34 

compared,  22 

rising-agents,  29    ' 

yeast,  30-31 
Leaves,  3 

tea  {illustrated)^  58 
Legumes  {illustrated)^  4 

characteristics,  9 
Lemon,  acids  in,  51 

composition,  38 

digestibility  of,  44 

extract,  53 

juice,  54 

lemonade,  56 
Lentils,  4 

characteristics,  9 
Lettuce,  care,  11 

composition,  6,  193 

nutrients,  8 

refuse,  8 

use,  5 
Life,  expectation,  210 

food,  200 

food  adjusted  to,  178 

foods,  178,  190-193 

needs,  66 

pastoral,  128 

primitive,  128,  132 

sustenance,  200 
Life-expectancy  {table),  210 
Light  diet,  207 
Lime,  elimination,  219 

foods,  219 

salts  in  milk,  113 

water,  113 
Liquid  diet,  207 
Living 

change  in  needs,  179 

commodities  {table),  157 

cost-increase,  157 

development  of,  132 

effects  of  peaceable,  132 

food-adjustment  to,  179 


240 


LIVING 

Living 

food-quality,  44 

functions  in  life,  72 

human,  128,  164 

income  {table),  183 

movement  in,  128 

organisms,  66,  71 

plant,  II,  68 

products  of,  72 

subjects  in  school,  134 

variety  of  needs,  179 
Lobster,  102-103 
Loin,  location,  91 

quality,  85 
Luncheon 

food-quantity,  181 

kinds,  181 

menus,  194 

Macaroni,  16 

flour,  25 
Mace,  52 

Mackerel,  loi,  103 
Maintenance  of  house,  183 
Maize  {ilhcstrated),  21 
Malnutrition 

general  cause,  202,  208-209 
vegetable-condition,  14,  151 
Manufacture 

effect  on  food,  145 
mechanical  arts 

development,  1 30-1 31 
origin,  129 
Maps  (see  Diagrams) 
acreage 
cereal,  19 
corn,  18 
cotton,  49 
hay,  122 
oats,  122 
wheat,  18 
animals  on  farms 
all  cattle,  123 
cows,  125 
fowls,  125 
horses,  123 
sheep,  124 
swine,  124 


MEAT 


Maps 

crops,  production,  17 
value  of,  78 

fruit,  value  of,  49 

home  of  grains,  17 

nuts,  value  of,  49 
Markets,  care,  11 

food,  I,  13 

live  stock,  82 
Mastication 

bread,  22 

cereals,  21 

childhood,  205 

effect  on  digestion,  197 

effect  on  teeth,  205 

^gg,  109 

meat,  89 

need  of,  168 

time  for,  201 
Mats,  128 
Maturity,  213 
Meat 

animals,  83-85,  88 
cuts,  90-91 

bones,  89,  95 

characteristics,  83-85 

color,  95 

composition,  20,  95 
compared,  95 

consumption,  215 

cooking,  85,  97 

cost,  95 

cutting,  88 

diagrams,  90—93 

diet,  169 

effects  of  storage,  100 

excess,  171 

extractives,  94 

extracts,  94,  97 

fat  in,  50 

fibers  {illustrated),  98 

function  in  diet,  97 

juices,  97 

kinds,  86-87 

nutrients,  94,  96-97 

powder,  97 

prepared,  87 

preserved,  87,  144 


241 


MEAT 

K 

TpJ                                          NITROGEN 

Meat 

Milk 

protein,  94 

origin  as  food,  128 

refuse,  86,  95 

pasteurized,  118 

test  of,  95 

powder,  119 

texture,  85 

preservation,  11 8-1 19 

trimmings,  95 

protein  in,  113 

use  in  diet,  94 

pure,  1 1 5-1 1 7 

Medicine,  preventive,  208 

souring,  117 

Melons,  composition,  8 

supply,  no 

digestibility,  44 

test,  115 

Menus,    daily,    types,    suggestions, 

use.  III,  119,  204,  208 

194-195 

whole,  114 

Metabolism,  200 

Millet  {illustrated),  127 

Metals,  128 

Milling,  24 

Mice,  136 

Mineral  matter  (see  Ash,  Salts) 

Middlings,  24 

bone-formation,  172 

patent  flours,  35 

bran,  24 

Milk  (see  Butter^  Cheese^  Cream) 

child-diet,  205 

acidity,  117 

flour,  24 

adulteration,  119 

food-constituent,  171 

bacteria  in  {illustrated) ,  11 

6-117 

food-cycle,  74 

bottled,  116 

food-digestion,  174,  208 

bread,  22 

fruits,  39 

buttermilk,  114 

function,  72,  208 

carbohydrate,  113 

milk,  113,  219 

care  of,  117 

old-age  diet,  211 

certified,  118 

vegetables,  5,  6,  9,  192-193 

characteristics,  113 

youth-diet,  212 

cheese,  114 

Mold,  care  of  bread,  28 

commission,  113,  115,  119 

care  of  food,  155 

composition  of,  103,  iii-i 

13 

cheese-making,  121 

compared,  114 

refuse,  137 

compared  with  oysters,  ] 

[02 

yeast,  30 

condensed,  114,  119 

Muffins,  36 

cream,  114 

Muscle 

curd,  114 

animal  {illustrated),  90 

diet.  III,  119 

fibers  {illustrated),  97 

digestibility,  115 

structure  {illustrated),  98 

fat,  113 

Mushrooms,  193 

fat  globules  {illustrated),  114 

Mustard,  52 

forms,  114 

Mutton,  composition,  86 

impure,  116 

leg  {carui7ig),  88 

infancy-need,  114 

shoulder  {ca7vi?ig),  99 

koumiss,  119 

lactic  acid,  117 

Neck,  88 

lactic  bacteria  {illustrated) 

'  "7 

Nitrogen,  4,  72 

loose,  116 

food-cycle,  74 

nutrients,  iii,  114,  119 

food-element,  73 

242 


NUTBIEG 

vTCy                                 PALATABILITY 

Nutmeg,  52 

Oils 

Nutrients 

construction,  72 

child-diet,  203 

food,  50 

digestibility,  196,  218 

function,  72 

eggs,  108 

vegetable,  50,  65 

fish,  loi 

volatile  in 

meats,  3,  83,  86-87,  94-97 

beverages,  57 

small  animals,  100 

spices,  52 

vegetables,  3,  8,  9,  192-193 

Old  age 

Nutrition 

condition  in,  211 

aids,  166 

diet-standard,  211 

body  as  laboratory,  216 

diseases  of,  211 

diet  in,  222-223 

metabolism,  22,  211 

disturbed,  208 

Oleomargarine,  120 

effect  of 

as  butter  substitute,  138 

food-combination,  189 

Olive,  care,  54 

gland-health,  208 

crops  in  U.S.,  48 

mineral  matter,  208 

fat  in,  50 

protein,  222 

oil,  50 

smell  and  taste,  219 

Onions,  composition,  6,  192 

food-quantity,  222 

nutrients,  8 

human,  2 

refuse,  8 

milk,  112 

Oranges,  acid  in,  51 

Nuts 

composition  {table),  38 

composition  {table),  47 

digestibility,  44 

crops  {table,  map),  48-49 

extract,  53 

cultivation,  47 

jelly,  43 

distribution,  49 

laxative  foods,  45 

food,  46 

Organism,  166 

production,  48 

Origins  in  human  development,  126- 

use  in  diet,  46,  50 

129 

Oxygen  in 

Oatmeal,  21 

food-cycle,  74 

composition,  raw,  21 

food-preservation,  149 

cooked,  21 

food-production,  73 

cooking,  21 

food-utilization,  66 

use,  21 

Oysters,  composition,  103,  191 

water,  63 

cooking,  102 

Oats,  acreage  {map),  122 

floating,  102 

grain  {illustrated),  25 

nutrients,  102 

plant  {illustrated),  20 

protein,  102-103 

starch  {illust7'ated),  76 

starch  in  {table),  76 

Palatability,  bread,  22 

yield  {table),  19,  77 

condiments,  54 

Obesity,  diet,  211 

diet,  199 

Occupation 

effect  on  digestion,  197,  199 

food-requirement,  182,  222 

Ggg,  106-107 

health  effect,  135 

flavor,  12 

243 


PALATABILITY 

rTrj                                         POTASSIUM 

Palatability 

Pigeon, 100 

foods,  199 

Pineapple,  38 

menu,  194 

effect  on  digestion,  197 

milk,  III 

enzyme  in,  197 

vegetable,  8-9 

jam,  jelly,  43 

vinegar,  52 

Pistachio,  47 

Paprika,  52 

Plant 

Parmesan  cheese,  121 

Plant  Life  and  Foods,  1-80 

Parsnips 

Contents,  vii 

characteristics,  9 

activity,  68 

composition,  6,  192 

cells  {illustrated),  75 

refuse,  8 

cultivation,  128 

Partridge,  100 

food-cycle,  74 

Pasteurized  milk,  1 18 

food-production,  2,  15,  73 

infant  health,  116 

foods,  16 

Peaches 

green,  66 

composition,  38 

illustrations,  vi,  4,  17-19,  20-21, 

digestibility,  44 

24-25,  30-31,  44-45'  58-61,  70- 

jam,  jelly,  43 

71.  75-79 

laxative  foods,  45 

maturity,  10 

Peanut,  butter,  47,  50 

part,  3,  52 

characteristics,  9 

reproduction,  10,  20 

composition,  47,  193 

respiration,  55 

nutrients,  193 

structure  {illustrated),  75 

Pear,  digestibility,  44 

tropical,  52 

jam,  jelly,  43 

use,  2,  3,  8,  9,  10,  66-68,  72,  74 

Peas,  care,  1 1 

Plate  (meat  cut),  88 

cells  {illustrated),  75 

Plow,  128 

characteristics,  9 

Plums,  38 

composition,  6,  192 

jam,  jelly  {table),  43 

legumes,  4 

Population,  U.S.A. 

refuse  {table),  8 

age-distribution  {table),  184 

starch  {illustrated),  76 

chart,  181 

starch  in  {table),  76 

composition  {table),  185 

Pecans,  47,  193 

descent,  185 

Pectin  in 

Pork,  animal,  88 

carrots,  9 

bacon,  87 

unripe  fruit,  39,  44 

cuts,  88 

Pectose  in 

ham  {illustrated),  88 

fruits,  44 

lard,  87 

vegetables,  9 

nutrients,  %'] 

Pepper,  52 

Porridge,  21 

Peristalsis,  5,  7,  9 

Porterhouse 

Phosphates,  33 

roast  {illustrated),  93 

Physiological  effect  of 

steak  {illustrated),  92 

beverages,  63 

Potassium  in 

coffee,  55-56 

food,  73 

extractives,  94 

fruits,  39 

2U 


POTATOES 

f  Jirj                                 RECEPTAC] 

Potatoes 

Protein 

characteristics,  9 

constituent  in,  171 

composition,  6,  192 

butter,  114 

cooking,  8 

cheese,  114 

cross-section  {illustrated)^  75 

eggs,  104 

nutrients,  8 

fish,  loi,  103 

protein,  8 

flour,  24 

refuse,  8 

grains,  22 

seed,  10 

milk,  113 

starch  {illustrated)^  75 

potatoes,  8 

starch  in  {table),  76 

vegetables,  8,  9,  72 

sweet,  192 

wheat,  24 

white,  8,  192 

daily  need,  201 

Pottery,  128 

diet-factor  in 

Predigested  food 

adult-diet,  213 

fermented,  177 

child-diet,  203 

peptonized,  177 

old-age  diet,  211 

Preface,  iii-iv* 

work-diet,  201 

Prepared  foods,  64,  177 

youth-diet,  212 

Preservation 

digestibility,  196,  218 

^^'g,  106,  220 

effect  on  digestion,  222 

fish,  221 

function,  3,  201,  219 

food,  137,  152-155 

granules  {illustrated),  75 

fruit,  44 

Prunes,  acid-producers,  223 

meat,  87,  144 

composition,  43,  193 

milk,  118-119 

digestibility,  44 

vegetables,  ii 

laxative  effect,  45 

Preservatives 

Ptomaines,  152 

effect  on  bacteria,  1 54 

effect  of,  1 54 

in  food,  149 

fish,  loi 

Producers  needed,  133 

hotel  fare,  1 54 

Production 

Ptyalin,  202 

all  foods  in  1909  {table),  187 

Pumpkins,  6,  9 

animal  foods  {table),  186 

Purification  of  atmosphere,  dZ 

animals  on  farms  {map)^  186 

Putrefaction,  153 

artificial,  131 

cereals  {map,  table),  18-19 

Quail,  100 

food,  127,  130-131 

foods  {table),  186 

Rabbits,  100 

fruits  {table),  186 

Radishes,  5,  7 

value,  187 

Raisins 

vegetables,  186 

base-producers,  223 

Protective  foods 

composition,  43,  193 

body-fat,  175 

Raspberries,  38 

diet-factors,  175 

digestibility,  44 

gelatin,  175 

Rats,  136 

Protein 

Receptacles,  cleanliness  of,  136 

animal,  94                         , 

vinegar,  51 

24S 


REFRIGERATION 

f    li|    1                               SEASONAL  DIET 

Refrigeration,  155 

Round  (meat  cut) 

fish,  221 

location  {diagram),  91 

Refuse,  7 

quality,  88 

bacteria  in,  137 

steak,  92 

factory,  136 

Rump,  88 

in  fruit,  38,  43 

location  {diagram),  91 

in  meat,  95 

Rye 

in  vegetables,  8 

acreage  {map),  19' 

mold  in,  137 

composition  {table),  20 

Rennet,  112 

cooking,  21 

Rennin,  115 

flakes,  21 

Rent,  183 

gluten  in,  2 

Repair  of  body,  164 

use,  21 

effect  on  health,  216 

yield  {map),  19 

effect  on  life,  167 

Reproduction 

Salad,  dressings,  51 

fission  [illustrated],  31 

oil,  50 

vegetation,  10 

Salmon,  loi,  103 

Resistance 

Salt,  common,  10 

disease,  208-209 

in  cooking,  12-13 

need  for,  209 

in  food,  198 

Respiration,  66 

Salts,  food,  5 

plant,  66 

in  cooking,  13 

Rest 

in  vegetables,  8-9 

effect  of,  216 

Sardines,  103 

need  of,  167 

Scalpings,  24 

Ribs,  quality,  88 

School  subjects  for  expansion   of 

location  {illustrated),  91 

knowledge,  134 

roast  {carving),  93 

Science 

Rice 

Food-Science  —   Nutrition, 

acreage  [map),  19 

160-224 

characteristics,  139 

Contents,  160 

coating  of,  16,  151 

applied  to  production,  139 

composition,  20 

factory,  food,  139 

condition,  137 

artificial  foods,  148 

loss  of  salts,  143 

development,  131 

polishing,  effect  of,  143 

diet,  168,  222-223 

starch  {illustrated),  76 

examination  of  food,  143 

starch  in  {table),  76 

experiment  with  food  and  nutri- 

yield {map),  19,  -]-] 

tion,  133 

Rising  agents,  22 

food-modification,  161 

discovery,  use,  29 

food-need,  132,  168,  181,  200-201 

Root 

food-supply,  143 

beets,  3 

growth-food,  203 

clover  {illustrated)^  4 

growth-impulse,  203 

food,  127 

origin  of,  128 

leguminous,  4 

physical  development,  168 

Roquefort,  121 

Seasonal  diet,  180 

246 


SEASONING 

{  Jpj                                                SUGAR 

Seasoning 

Spirogyra  {illustrated),  75 

effect  on  digestion,  198 

Spores,  71 

effect  on  foods,  198 

Squab,  100 

excess,  198 

Squash,  9 

methods,  198 

Stalk,  3 

Seasons,  foods  for,  180 

Starch  (see  Carbohydrates,  Grains),  4 

menus  for,  194-195 

baking-powder,  32 

Seed,  development  of,  134 

body-fat  from,  173 

Seeds,  10 

effect  of  cooking,  13 

cocoa  {illustrated)^  58 

endurance  food,  181 

coffee  {illustrated),  59 

energy  food,  173 

condiments,  52 

flour,  35 

food,  127 

food-cycle  function,  74 

fruit-cultivation,  40 

foods,  3-4,  6,  9,  11-13,  20-27,  73, 

grain,  20 

201,  219 

plant,  10 

fruits,  green,  41 

starch  in  {illustrated),  'j6 

grains  {table),  75 

Shad,  103,  191 

grains  {illustrated),  76 

roe,  103 

pea  {illustrated),  75 

Shank,  88 

potato  {illustrated),  75 

location  {diagram),  91 

raw,  3 

Sheep  {map),  124 

use,  3,  9,  201 

(see  Lamb,  Mutton) 

vegetables,  9,  11,  44 

Shops,  care  of  food,  1 1 

wheat,  25 

Sirloin 

Stem,  3 

cutting  steaks  {illustrated),  92 

Sterile  food,  152 

roasts  {carving),  93 

Sterilization 

Skeleton,  3 

food-preservation,  149 

beef  {diagram),  90 

food-purifying,  152 

Skim-milk,  digestibility,  115 

milk-bottle,  118 

use,  114 

Stilton  cheese,  121 

Sleep,  activity  during,  164 

Storage,  cold,  153 

effect  on  nutrition,  211 

effects  on  meat,  100 

effect  on  repair,  167 

egg-refrigeration,  200 

Soda 

fish-shipping,  221 

baking-powder,  32 

food,  137 

benzoate  of,  137 

fruit,  155 

Soil,  cultivation,  128 

starch  vegetables,  1 1 

dangers,  7 

Strawberries,  38 

food-cycle  function,  74 

acid  in,  51 

Spices,  source,  52 

digestibility,  44 

production,  54 

Study  of  food,  131 

use,  52 

Sugar,  4 

Spinach,  characteristics,  9 

beet,  64 

composition,  6,  193 

cane,  55 

diarrhea  diet,  207 

crop  {map),  ']'] 

lime  in,  219 

fruit,  39,  41 

refuse,  8 

glucose,  55 

247 


SUGAR 


Sugar 

kinds,  64 

manufacture,  64,  145 

milk,  113,  115 

plant,  10 

source,  64 

use  in  diet,  3,  64 

vegetable,  8-9 
Sulphites,  149-150 
Summaries  (see  Contents^  Tables) 

adult-diet,  200,  213 

animal  food,  126 

beverages,  63 

building  food,  172 

butter,  120 

calculation  of  dietary,  223 

condiments,  54-55 

diet-quantities,  159,  181-182,  188, 
200-201,  211,  222-223 

digestion,  217 
aids,  197 
digestibility,  218 
foods,  174 

disease-resistance,  209,  210 

egg-characteristics,  104 

energy  food,  173 

existence-diet,  200-201 

fish,  103 

food-constituents,  165,  219 
supply  and  diet,  80 
utilization,  218-219 

fruits,  45 

meat,  94 

meat  cuts,  88,  95 

metaboHsm,  216 

palatability,  218 

sensible  diet,  213 

vegetable,  3,  8-9,  65 

work-food,  201,  222,  224 
Summer  diet,  180 
Sunlight  in  food-production,  73 
Swine  on  farms  [map),  124 
Swordfish,  103 
Symbols 


Animal  Life  and  Foods, 
81-126 


Symbols 


TABLES 


Food-Science  —  Nu- 
trition, 158-224 


Living,  Commerce,  Sci- 
ence, 127-158 


Plant  Life  and  Foods,  1-79 
1(31  Preface,  iii-iv 


Tables  (see  Contents,  Summaries) 
acid  in  fruit,  51 
age-distribution,  184 
causes  of  death,  210 
cereal  acreage,  19 
child-diet 

food-constituents,  203 
food-exclusions,  205 
food-inclusions,  204 
food-quantities,  202 
composition  of 
all  foods,  190-193 
apples  developing,  39 
beverages  as  used,  63 
breads,  27,  192 

breads,  cake,  crackers,  37,  192 
cereals,  20,  192 
chocolate,  62-63 
cocoas,  62-63 
coffee,  63 
fish,  103,  191 
flours,  26,  192 
foods 

animal,  103,  190-191 
common,  46,  190-193 
dairy  products,  114,  191 
^ZZ^  108,  191 
fruits,  43,  193 
jams,  jellies,  43 


248 


TABLES 


TOMATOES 


Tables 
foods 

laxative,  45,  174 
milk  products,  114,  191 
nuts,  47,  193 
tea,  57,  63 

vegetables,  6,  8-9,  192-193 
diet-amounts 
calculation,  223 
daily,  188 
old  age,  211 
work,  222 
digestibility,  196,  218 
animal  foods,  218 
order  of,  126,  218 
time  of,  196 
fruits,  44 
nutrients,  196 
vegetables,  196 
effect  of  milk-purity,  116 
fat  in  foods,  50 
food-consumption,  158 
cost  for  workers,  156 
exchange,  158 
importation,  158 
prices,  156 
production 

animal  foods,  186 
vegetable,  187 
proportions,  182 
foreign  residents,  214 
French  dietary,  159 
fuel  value  of  foods,  188 
income-distribution,  183 
laxative  foods,  45,  174 
life-expectancy,  210 
live  stock,  82 
living-commodities 
importations,  157 
prices,  157 
meat-consumption,  215 
menus,  194 
nut-production,  48 
occupational  energy-requirement, 

222 
population-distribution,  185 
refuse  in  vegetables,  8 
spices  in  diet,  52 


Tables 

starch  in  foods,  76 

vegetables,  distinguished,  8-9 

world-crops,  ']'] 

wrapped  bread,  28 
Table-laying  {illustrated)^  after  194 
Tannin  in 

cocoa,  62 

coffee,  57 

spices,  52 

tea,  57,  63 
Tea  (see  Beverages) 

adulteration,  57 

composition  {table),  57,  63 

culture,  58 

leaves  {illustrated),  58 

preparation,  57 

varieties,  58 
Teeth,  diet  care,  205 

growth  of,  202 
Temperature,  cooking,  97 

effect  on  bacteria,  153 

refrigeration,  155 

sterilization,  152 

storage,  137 
food,  152 
fruit,  41 
vegetable,  41 
Theine,  55 
Theobromine  in 

cocoa,  62 

coffee,  55,  63 
Thyroid  functioning,  effect  on  nutri- 
tion, 212 
Tissue,  building,  26 

connective,  97 

effects  of  preservatives  on,  149 

formation,  2,  9 

functioning,  200 

repairing,  164,  209 

sparing,  175 
Tomatoes 

benzoate  of  soda  in,  137 

canned,  137 

nutrients,  8 

plant-part,  3 

refuse  in  {table),  8 

use  in  diet,  8 


249 


TONKA  BEAN 

Tonka  bean,  53 
Tools,  building,  129 
Toxic  substances 

fish,  loi 

tyrotoxicon,  116 
Transportation 

cocoa,  60 

egg,  220 

fish,  221 

food,  5 

fruits,  41,  155 

milk,  no 
Trout,  103 

Tubercles  {illush'ated),  4 
Turkey,  100 
Turnips 

characteristics,  9 

refuse,  8 


Vanilla,  53 
Vanillin,  53 
Veal 

compared  with  fish,  103 
composition,  86 
cuts  {diagram),  82 
Vegetable  (see  Plant,  Carbohydrate) 
care,  11,  13,  15 
cells  {illustrated),  75 

starch  in  {illustrated),  76 
cellulose,  72 
characteristics,  10 
composition,  3 
general,  20 
tables,  6,  192-193 
constituents,  9 
cooking,  12 
dangers,  14-15 
differences,  7 
distinctions,  8-9 
food,  2-64,  192-193 
kinds,  3-5 
green,  5,  11 
legumes,  4 
starchy,  3,  11 
preservation,  11 
protein,  72 
refuse  {table),  8 
selection,  14 


WATER 


Vegetable 

starch  {table),  44 

structure  {illustrated),  13 

summary,  65 

supplies,  65 

use,  9 
Vegetation    (see    Cycle   of  nature, 
Plant- activity) 

food-production,  187 

moisture,  68 

summary,  65 

tropical,  65 

value  of,  66-67 
Vinegar 

adulteration,  51 

care,  51 

composition,  51 

effect  on  meat,  87 

preservative,  54 

use,  54 
Volatile  oils  in 

beverages,  57 

flavorings,  53 

spices,  52 

Walnuts,  47 

Waste  products,  5,  205,  211,  216-217 

bacteria  in,  174 

food-cycle  function,  74 

hindrance  of,  174 

living,  72 
Water 

beverages,  63 

body-need,  56,  172 

body-use,  167 

bread,  22,  27 

contaminated,  137,  151 

cooking,  8,  12 

diet  effect,  3,  197,  211 

digestion  effect,  167,  174 

disease,  206,  208 

drinking,  167 

in  fish,  loi,  103 

in  food,  171,  190-193 

in  food-cycle,  74 

in  food-production,  173 

in  food-utilization,  176 

in  fruits,  39 


2S0 


WATER 

Water 

in  milk,  1 1 1 

need  of  life,  66 

preservative,  1 1 

ptire,  167 

sewage,  15 

supply,  69 
Weapons,  128 
Wheat 

acreage  {map),  18 

bread,  27-28,  36-37 

constituents,  25 

flour,  25-26,  35 
{table),  26 

gluten,  22 

grains  {illustrated),  24 

growth,  25 

hulls,  24 

illustrated,  22,  24-25 

kinds,  24 

milling,  24 

starch  {table),  76 
{illustrated),  76 

value  of  crop  {table),  187 

yield  in  1909,  I9)  77 
Whitefish,  loi,  103 
Winter,  need  in 

cereals,  21     ^ 

diet-adjustment,  180 

menus,  194 
Wood-alcohol,  150 
Work 

food  for,  181 

food-needs  in,  201 

in  provision  of  food,  130 
Work-diets 

fat  in,  201 


\ir\  YOUTH-DIET 

Work-diets 

food-constituents  in,  201 

foods  of,  201 

fruits  in,  201,  213 

green  foods,  201,  213 

meat  in,  201,  215,  218 

potatoes,  201 

protein,  201 

rice,  201 

starch,  201 

sugar,  201 

vegetables,  201 
Workers 

diet-needs,  224 

diets  for,  169,  201,  222 

food  and  wage,  1 56 

food-cost,  156 

food-workers,  131 

occupational  energy-requirement, 
222 
Writing,  128 

Yeast,  30-31 

bread,  27,  36 

bread-making,  30 

care  of,  31 

cells  {illustrated),  31,  75,  98 
developing  {illustrated),  30,  75 

characteristics,  22,  31 

conditions  for,  30 

food  of,  30 

growth,  28 

home-made,  31 

plants,  29 

prepared,  31 

wild,  31 
Youth-diet,  212 


2S1 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS 

WILL  B.E-AeSCSSEQ«£SR^FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE"T3trEr--«i£^PENALTY 
WILL  INCREA^fe  TO  50  CENTS  ON  THE'f'OURTH 
DAY  AND  T^  $1.00  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


MAR  iQ  1935 


^^G   3    1936 


OCT  26  193 


j^ 


^^m 


4Pr  -■-... 


hn^ 


''^    '   im9 


JUN  13  ISdS 


.lUL  22  1947 


JUN    1    1M8 


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r.'^:-\  fe 


lii- 


2Q0ct 


ric*—  i-J   '^—' 


OCT  14  1956 


20|gWLD 


_B^ 


APRO    1951 


^^u'o    ^ 


^ov  re 


BP 


«r,ot 


^11. 


£p  2  9  mi — 


34 


fD     iOlUu 


4--? 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


iillli 

iililiiiillili 


:  iiiii 


II 


i  i 


